Fungal Resources for Sustainable Economy: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: Fungi in Sustainable Economy: An Introduction
1: Impact of Fungi on the World Economy and Its Sustainability: Current Status and Potentials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Major Challenges to World Economy
1.3 Green Economy, a Sustainable Solution
1.4 Bioeconomy
1.5 Fungi, a Potential Tool of Bioeconomy
1.6 Fungal Impact on World Economy
1.6.1 Positive Implications of Fungi on Economy
1.6.1.1 Health Sector
1.6.1.1.1 Pharmaceuticals
1.6.1.1.2 Medicinal Mushrooms
1.6.1.2 Agricultural Sector
1.6.1.2.1 Biocontrol Agent
1.6.1.2.2 Biofertilizers
1.6.1.3 Food Sector
1.6.1.3.1 Edible Fungi as Direct Food
1.6.1.3.2 Fungi in Food Products
1.6.1.3.3 Beverages
1.6.1.4 Chemical Sector
1.6.1.4.1 Enzymes
1.6.1.4.2 Organic Acids
1.6.1.4.3 Biofuel
1.6.1.4.4 Plastics and Their Biodegradation
1.6.2 Negative Implications of Fungi on Economy
1.6.2.1 Cause of Diseases
1.6.2.2 Food Spoilage and Contamination
1.7 Potentials of Fungi Toward Sustainable World Economy
1.7.1 Food Security
1.7.2 Mycoremediation
1.7.3 Production Hosts for Enzymes
1.7.4 Functional Genomics and Discovery of Novel Anti-infectives
1.8 Conclusion
References
2: Sustainable Utilization of Fungal Resources: Applications in Plant and Animal Health
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Utilization of Fungi in Improving Plant Growth and Productivity
2.2.1 Removal of Metal Toxicity from Soil
2.2.1.1 Immobilization of Metals in the Soil by the Glomalin Protein
2.2.1.2 Adsorption of Heavy Metals from the Contaminated Soil by Fungal Structures
2.2.2 Role of AMF in Nutrient Uptake
2.2.2.1 Uptake of Phosphorus
2.2.2.2 Uptake of Zinc
2.2.2.3 Uptake of Iron
2.2.2.4 Uptake of Nitrogen
2.2.3 Fungal Endophytes in Pest and Disease Resistance to Plants
2.2.4 Fungi as Biofertilizers
2.3 Utilization of Fungi in Animal Health
2.3.1 Edible Fungi as a Source of Nutrients
2.3.2 Fungi in Cosmeceuticals
2.3.3 Fungi as Antibacterial Agents
2.3.4 Fungi as Probiotics
2.3.4.1 Probiotics in Animal Feed and Poultry Nutrition
2.3.5 Fungi as a Source of Lipids
2.3.6 Fungi as a Source of Antibiotics
2.3.7 Fungi as a Source of Enzymes
2.3.8 Fungi in Medicine
2.4 Conclusion
References
Part II: Fungal Resources: Current and Potential Industrial Applications
3: Role and Applications of Fungi in Food and Fermentation Technology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Characteristics of Fungi
3.3 Classification of Fungi
3.4 Proliferation of Fungi
3.5 Application of Fungi in Food Production
3.5.1 Acid-Fermented Leavened Foods
3.5.2 Fermented Milk Products
3.5.3 Cereal-Based Fermented Foods
3.5.4 Fruit- and Vegetable-Based Alcoholic Beverages
3.5.5 Fermented Soybean Products
3.5.6 Legume-Based Fermented Foods
3.5.7 Tuber Crop-Based Fermented Food
3.5.8 Fermented Fish and Meat Products
3.5.9 Fungal Enzymes
3.5.10 Edible Fungi
3.6 Fungi as Food Spoiler and Mycotoxin Producer
3.7 Conclusions
References
4: Fungal Keratinases: Enzymes with Immense Biotechnological Potential
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Keratinolytic Fungi
4.3 Production of Fungal Keratinases
4.4 Purification of Fungal Keratinases
4.5 Biochemical Characterization of Fungal Keratinase
4.6 Structure of Keratinolytic Enzymes
4.6.1 Keratinolytic Protease Structure in S1 Family
4.6.2 Keratinolytic Protease Structure in S8 Family
4.6.3 Keratinolytic Protease Structure in M32 Family
4.7 Mechanism of Action of Fungal Keratinases
4.8 Applications of Fungal Keratinases
4.8.1 Feed and Agroindustry
4.8.2 Leather Industry
4.8.3 Therapeutic Applications
4.8.3.1 Trans-ungual Delivery of Drugs
4.8.3.2 Treatment of Dermatophytosis
4.8.3.3 Prion Decontamination
4.8.3.4 Other Pharmaceutical Applications
4.8.4 Detergent Industry
4.8.5 Textile Industry
4.8.6 Other Prospective Applications
4.8.6.1 Silver Recovery from X-ray Films
4.8.6.2 Biofuels
4.8.6.3 Processing of Edible Bird´s Nests
4.9 Conclusions
References
5: Bioprospection of Endophytic Fungi for Extracellular Enzymes
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Relationship Between Endophytes and Host Plants
5.3 Fungal Endophytes and Extracellular Enzyme Production
5.4 Endophytic Fungal Enzymes and Their Applications
5.4.1 Laccase
5.4.2 Protease
5.4.3 Cellulase and Xylanase
5.4.4 Amylase
5.4.5 Lipase
5.5 Conclusion
References
6: Potential Antioxidant Enzymes from Fungi and Their Clinical Significance
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Singlet Oxygen or Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
6.2.1 Generation of ROS
6.2.2 ROS Synthesis in Mitochondria
6.2.3 ROS Synthesis by NADPH Oxidases (NOX)
6.2.4 Other Sources of ROS
6.2.5 Dual Role of ROS
6.2.6 Physiological Role of ROS in Cellular Homeostasis
6.2.7 Pathological Aspects of ROS
6.2.7.1 Role of ROS in the Establishment of Infertility in Males
6.2.7.2 ROS and Infertility in Females
6.2.7.3 Role of ROS in Cancer
6.3 Antioxidants and Detoxification
6.4 Superoxide Dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1)
6.4.1 History of SOD
6.5 Commercially Available SODs
6.6 Different Forms of SODs in Humans and Their Localization and Role
6.6.1 SOD1 (Cu/Zn-SOD)
6.6.2 SOD2 (MnSOD)
6.6.3 SOD3 (Extracellular Cu/ZnSOD and ecSOD)
6.7 Biology of ROS
6.8 Therapeutic Potential and Physiological Importance of SOD
6.8.1 SOD as an Anti-inflammatory Agent
6.8.2 Role of SOD in Cancer Therapy
6.8.3 SOD3 in the Treatment of Arthritis
6.8.4 Role of SOD3 in Diabetic Vascular Disorders
6.8.5 Role of SOD3 in Diabetic Nephropathy
6.8.6 Role of SOD3 in Allergic Conjunctivitis
6.8.7 Role of SOD in Oxidative Stress-Induced Male Infertility
6.9 Clinical Overview of SOD
6.10 Catalase (EC 1.11.1.6)
6.10.1 Catalase Distribution
6.10.2 Therapeutic Potential of Catalase
6.10.2.1 Catalase and Male Fertility
6.10.2.2 Catalase in COVID-19 Treatment
6.10.2.3 Catalase and Longevity
6.10.2.4 Graying of Hair
6.10.2.5 Protection Against Excessive Dietary Fat
6.10.2.6 Catalase Prevents and Reverses Cancer
6.10.2.7 Role of Catalase in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
6.10.2.8 Diabetes and Blood Catalase Deficiency
6.10.3 Catalase Synthesis in Microorganisms
6.11 Conclusion
References
7: Health Benefits of Mushrooms: An Appraisal
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nutraceutical Components of Mushrooms
7.2.1 Proteins and Amino Acids
7.2.2 Minerals
7.2.3 Vitamins
7.2.4 Mushroom Immunomodulators
7.2.4.1 Polysaccharides (PS) and beta-Glucan
7.2.4.2 Terpenoids
7.2.4.3 Lectins
7.2.4.4 Fungal Immunomodulatory Proteins (FIPs)
7.3 Mushroom Nutraceuticals and Their Biological Activities
7.3.1 Antimicrobial Activity
7.3.2 Antioxidant Activity
7.3.3 Antidiabetic Activity
7.3.4 Cytotoxic Activity
7.3.5 Anti-inflammatory Activities
7.3.6 Neuroprotective Activity
7.3.6.1 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD)
7.3.6.2 Huntington´s Disease (HD)
7.3.7 Enzyme Activity
7.3.7.1 Antioxidant Enzymes
7.3.7.2 Laccase
7.3.7.3 Tyrosinase
7.3.7.4 Lignocellulosic-Degrading Enzymes
7.4 Conclusions
References
8: Diversity of Ethnomedicinal Mushrooms from the Western Ghats of India and Their Sustainable Utilization
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Ethnomedicine
8.3 Mushroom Diversity
8.4 Use of Ethnomedicinal Mushrooms
8.4.1 Use of Mushrooms in China
8.5 Diversity and Use of Mushrooms in India
8.5.1 Ayurveda and Mushrooms
8.6 The Western Ghats of India
8.6.1 Diversity of Macrofungi in the Western Ghats
8.6.2 Ethnomedicinal Mushrooms from the Western Ghats
8.7 Some Important Medicinal Mushrooms
8.8 Commercialization of Mushrooms
8.8.1 Ethnomedicinal Mushroom Collection and Utilization
8.9 Conclusion
References
Part III: Fungal Resources: Current and Potential Agricultural Applications
9: Endophytic Fungi: Application in Combating Plant Pathogens and Sustainable Agriculture
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Diversity and Distribution
9.3 Endophyte-Pathogen: Contact Interactions
9.4 Endophytic Fungi: The Bioactive Secondary Metabolite Synthesizers
9.5 Bioactive Metabolites from Fungal Endophytes: Application in Agriculture
9.6 Improving Biotic and Abiotic Stress Tolerance
9.7 Insecticidal Activity
9.8 Nematicidal Activity
9.9 Conclusion
References
10: Benefits and Potential of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in Vegetable Crop Production
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Insights into Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF)
10.2.1 Classification of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
10.2.2 Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
10.3 Successful Use of AMF with Vegetable Crops
10.3.1 Seedling Establishment and Growth
10.3.2 Enhanced Nutrient Acquisition
10.3.3 Reduction in Fertilizer Input
10.3.4 Production of Secondary Metabolites
10.3.5 Increased Fruit Yield
10.3.6 AMF Facilitates Survival Under Extreme Environmental Stresses
10.3.7 Protection Against Abiotic Stresses
10.3.8 Protection Against Biotic Stresses
10.4 AMF Interactions
10.4.1 AMF Interaction with Soil Amendments
10.4.2 AMF Synergistic Interaction with Beneficial Microbes
10.4.3 AMF Interaction with Non-Mycorrhizal Vegetable Crops
10.5 Inoculum Production of AMF
10.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
10.7 Recommendations
References
11: Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Fungi Resources for Sustainable and Climate-Smart Cultivation of Maize
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Future of Maize Cultivation Amid the Global Climate Change
11.3 Role of AMF in Climate-Smart Cultivation of Maize
11.3.1 Role of AMF in Temperature-Related Climate Stress
11.3.2 Water Stress and AMF
11.3.3 Tolerance Against Pathogens in Maize with AMF
11.4 AMF Resources for Maize: Diversity and Databases
11.5 Limitations and Future Directions
References
12: Role of Endophytic Fungi in Promoting Plant Health
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Endophytic Fungi as a Producer of Putative Phytochemicals
12.3 Endophytic Fungi and Phytohormone Production
12.4 Endophytic Fungi Consortia as Bio-Inoculant
12.5 Conclusion
References
13: Fungal Biocontrol Agents: A Sustainable Management Option for Soybean Diseases
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Major Diseases of Soybean
13.2.1 Pod Blight of Soybean
13.2.2 Rust
13.2.3 Rhizoctonia Aerial Blight
13.2.4 Phytophthora and Pythium Seed Rot
13.2.5 Charcoal Rot
13.3 Fungal Biocontrol Agents
13.4 Mechanism of Biocontrol of Plant Diseases
13.4.1 Attachment to Pathogen Surfaces
13.4.2 Mycoparasitism
13.4.3 Lytic Enzymes
13.4.4 Antibiotics
13.4.5 Suppression by Other by-Products
13.4.6 Competition
13.5 Microbial Diversity of Soybean and Disease Suppression
13.6 Soybean Beneficial Microbes and Pathogen Interaction
13.7 Management of some of the Major Diseases of Soybean Using Fungal Biocontrol Agents
13.7.1 Pod Blight
13.7.2 Rust
13.7.3 Rhizoctonia Aerial Blight
13.7.4 Pythium Seed Rot
13.7.5 Charcoal Rot
13.7.6 Future Research Needs in Sustainable Management of Soybean Diseases in India
13.8 Conclusions
13.9 Future Prospects
References
14: Advances in Formulations and Efficacy of Mycopesticides for Plant Disease Management and Sustainable Yields
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Mycopesticides
14.3 Formulations of Mycopesticides
14.3.1 Categories of Bioformulations
14.3.1.1 Solid Formulation
14.3.1.2 Liquid Formulations
14.3.2 Novel Formulations
14.3.2.1 Encapsulation
14.3.2.2 Tablet Formulation
14.3.2.3 Microemulsions
14.3.2.4 Oil Water Emulsion/Oil Dispersion
14.3.2.5 Nanoformulation
14.4 Carriers and Adjuvants Used in Mycopesticide Formulations
14.5 Role of Mycopesticides and Their Formulations in Crop Disease Management
14.6 Constraints
14.7 Prospects
14.8 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Fungi and Their Secondary Metabolites: Implications
15: Recent Advances in Fungal Secondary Metabolites and Their Applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Functions and Types of Fungal Secondary Metabolites (FSMs)
15.2.1 Terpenes
15.2.2 Polyketides
15.2.3 Indole Alkaloids
15.2.4 Nonribosomal Peptides
15.3 Plant-Fungi Secondary Metabolites Interaction and Antifungal Activity
15.3.1 Secondary Metabolites with Antifungal Activity
15.3.2 Secondary Metabolites of Phytopathogenic Fungi
15.3.3 Phytotoxin Effects on Host Plant
15.3.4 Endophyte Secondary Metabolites
15.4 Mechanism of Action of Antifungal Compounds
15.5 Genomic and Proteomic Regulation of Fungal Secondary Metabolites
15.5.1 Stimuli in Fungal Secondary Metabolite Production
15.5.2 Genomic Correlation of Secondary Metabolites
15.5.3 Transcription Factors
15.5.4 Role of Epigenetics
15.6 Applications of Fungal Secondary Metabolites
15.6.1 Biotechnological Applications
15.6.2 Industrial Applications
15.6.3 Medical Applications
15.6.4 Agricultural Applications
15.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
16: The Biological Implications of Fungi as Agents of Mycotoxigenicity and Potential Therapeutics in Medicine
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Fungal Pathogens on Human Health
16.3 Fungal Infections in Animals
16.4 Mycotoxins
16.4.1 Aflatoxins
16.4.2 Citrinins
16.4.3 Ochratoxin A
16.4.4 Fumonisins
16.4.5 Gliotoxins
16.4.6 Ergot Alkaloids
16.4.7 Other Mycotoxins
16.5 Mycotoxin Management Strategies
16.5.1 Challenges in Mycotoxin Management
16.5.2 Pre- and Post-harvest Preventive Strategies
16.5.3 Good Agricultural Practices
16.5.4 Pre-harvest Biological Control Methods
16.5.5 Decontamination of Mycotoxins
16.5.5.1 Physical Methods
16.5.5.2 Chemical Methods
16.5.5.3 Biological Methods
16.5.5.4 Innovative Techniques
16.6 Fungi-Derived Therapeutics in Medicine
16.6.1 Challenges in Drug Development
16.6.2 Infectious Diseases
16.6.2.1 Antibacterial Drugs
16.6.2.2 Antifungal Drugs
16.6.2.3 Antivirals
16.6.3 Noncommunicable Illnesses
16.6.3.1 Immunomodulatory Drugs
16.6.3.2 Cholesterol-Lowering Agents
16.6.3.3 Anticancer Drugs and Biomolecules
16.7 Conclusions
References
17: A Potential Source of Medicines from Fungi: An Overview of Biologically Active Secondary Metabolites
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Secondary Metabolites from Fungi
17.2.1 Isolation and Characterization of Secondary Metabolites from Fungi
17.2.2 Types of Fungi Based on Their Ecosystem
17.2.2.1 Endophytic Fungi
17.2.2.2 Marine Fungi
17.2.2.3 Epiphytic Fungi
17.2.2.4 Mushrooms
17.2.3 Plant-Fungal Interaction for the Production of Secondary Metabolites
17.3 Antimicrobial Activity
17.4 Anticancer Activity
17.5 Antidiabetic Activity
17.6 Antioxidant Activity
17.7 Other Biological Activities
17.8 Conclusion
References
18: Mycotoxins: Structure, Biosynthesis, Health Effects, and Their Biological Detoxification
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Mycotoxins
18.2.1 Aflatoxins
18.2.2 Ochratoxins (OTA)
18.2.3 Citrinin
18.2.4 Patulin
18.2.5 Zearalenone (ZEN/ZEA)
18.2.6 Zearalenol (ZOL)
18.2.7 Fumonisins (FBs)
18.2.8 Trichothecenes
18.2.8.1 T-2 Toxin
18.2.8.2 Deoxynivalenol (DON)
18.3 Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins
18.3.1 Aflatoxins
18.3.2 OTA
18.3.3 Patulin
18.3.4 Zearalenone
18.3.5 Deoxynivalenol
18.3.6 FB1
18.4 Conclusion
References
19: Mycotoxins: Detection Methods and Strategies for Management
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Detection of Mycotoxins
19.3 Chromatographic Techniques
19.3.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
19.3.2 High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
19.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
19.5 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS)
19.6 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
19.7 Capillary Electrophoresis
19.8 Serological or Immunological Methods
19.8.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
19.8.2 Lateral Flow Test
19.8.3 Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassays (FPI)
19.8.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
19.8.5 Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
19.9 Biological Methods
19.9.1 Sensor Technology
19.9.2 Biosensors
19.9.3 Signal Amplification Method
19.10 Management Strategies to Prevent Contamination of Food and Feed
19.10.1 Prevention of Mold or Fungus Growth in Crops and Other Feedstuffs
19.10.2 Pre-Harvesting Strategies
19.10.3 Post-Harvesting Strategies
19.11 Detoxification of Mycotoxin-Contaminated Feeds/Foods
19.11.1 Novel Detoxification Strategies for Mycotoxin-Contaminated Feed and Food Items
19.11.1.1 Plant Extracts (Essential Oils)
19.11.1.2 Magnetic Materials and Nanoparticles
19.11.1.3 Other Innovative Methods for Detoxification of Mycotoxins
19.12 Continuous Surveillance of Mycotoxins in Crops, Food, and Feed Items
19.13 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
20: Mycotoxins as Food and Feed Contaminant: Effect on Health and Economy and Their Management
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Types of Mycotoxins
20.2.1 Aflatoxins
20.2.2 Ochratoxins (OT)
20.2.3 Zearalenone (ZEA)
20.2.4 Fumonisins
20.2.5 Trichothecenes
20.2.6 Citrinins (CIT)
20.2.7 Patulins (PAT)
20.3 Mycotoxins Regulations
20.4 Mycotoxins Exposure
20.5 Health Concerns
20.5.1 Effect of Mycotoxins on Human Health
20.5.2 Effect of Mycotoxin on Gut Microbiota
20.5.3 Effect of Mycotoxin on Animal Health
20.5.4 Mycotoxicoses in Pets
20.5.5 Effect of Mycotoxins on Non-ruminant Animal Health
20.5.6 Effect of Mycotoxins on Ruminant Animal Health
20.6 Economic Losses
20.7 Mycotoxins Analysis
20.7.1 Rapid Methods of Analysis for Mycotoxins
20.7.2 New Technologies for Mycotoxin Detection and Measurement
20.8 Mycotoxin Control
20.8.1 Pre-harvest Treatments
20.8.2 Post-harvest Treatments
20.8.2.1 Physical Treatments
20.8.2.2 Chemical Treatments
20.8.2.3 Biocontrol Treatments
20.9 Conclusion
References
21: Aflatoxins: Occurrence, Biosynthesis Pathway, Management, and Impact on Health
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Structure and Properties of Aflatoxins
21.3 Aflatoxins Occurrence
21.3.1 Food and Feed
21.3.2 Herbal Medicines
21.3.3 Biological Samples
21.4 Toxicity
21.5 Biosynthesis of Aflatoxin
21.6 Factors Affecting Aflatoxin Production
21.6.1 Nutritional Factors
21.6.1.1 Role of Carbon Sources
21.6.1.2 Role of Nitrogen Sources
21.6.1.3 Role of Lipoperoxidation
21.6.1.4 Role of Trace Metals
21.6.1.5 Role of Phosphates
21.6.1.6 Environmental and Physiological Factors
21.7 Degradation Methods
21.7.1 Physical Method
21.7.2 Chemical Methods
21.7.3 Biological Methods
21.7.3.1 Microbial Degradation
21.7.3.2 Enzymatic Degradation
21.7.3.3 Phytochemicals
21.7.3.3.1 Quercetin
21.7.3.3.2 Gallic Acid
21.7.3.3.3 Trans-cinnamic Acid (CA) and Ferulic acid (FA)
21.7.3.3.4 Carvacrol (CR) and Trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC)
21.7.3.3.5 Essential Oils of Turmeric
21.7.3.3.6 Coumarin
21.7.3.3.7 2-Phenylethanol (2-PE)
21.8 Detection of Aflatoxin
21.8.1 Chromatography Techniques
21.8.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography
21.8.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
21.8.4 Gas Chromatography
21.9 Spectroscopic Method
21.9.1 Fluorescence Spectrophotometry
21.9.2 Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
21.9.3 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
21.10 Conclusion
References
Part V: Fungi: Burden to Health and Indoor Environment
22: Fungi Impacting Human Health
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Common Fungal Diseases of the Human Body
22.2.1 Skin, Hair, and Nails
22.2.2 Mucous Membranes and Eyes
22.2.3 Lungs and Other Invasive Infections
22.3 Diagnostic Tests for Fungal Infections
22.4 Treatments for Fungal Infections
22.4.1 Antifungal Drugs
22.4.2 Vaccine Development
22.5 Positive Fungal Implications on Human Health
22.5.1 Edible Fungi
22.5.2 Pharmaceutical Applications of Fungi
22.6 Conclusions
References
23: Neglected Canine Fungal Zoonoses: Emerging Threats, Diagnostics, and Public Health
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Dermatophytosis
23.3 Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis in Dogs
23.4 Otitis Externa in Dogs
23.5 Malassezia Dermatitis in Canines
23.5.1 Cultural Detection of Malassezia Using Tape Strip Technique
23.5.2 Molecular Detection of Malassezia Using Tailored Methodology
23.5.2.1 DNA Extraction from the Clinical Samples
23.5.2.2 Thermocycler Conditions for DNA Amplification by PCR
23.5.3 Results and Discussion
23.6 Challenges and Solutions of Fungal Infections in Humans
23.7 Conclusions
References
24: Impact of Fungi on Indoor Air Quality: Health Hazards and Management Strategies
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Fungi Causing Indoor Pollution and Factors Affecting Their Colonization
24.3 The Health Hazards of Indoor Fungi
24.3.1 Respiratory Problems
24.3.2 Hypersensitivity Syndrome
24.3.3 Immune Disorders
24.3.4 Allergies
24.3.5 Neuropsychiatric Problems
24.4 Fungal Constituents Causing Indoor Pollution
24.4.1 Volatile Fungal Metabolites (VFM)
24.4.2 (1-3)-beta-D Glucan
24.4.3 Ergosterol
24.4.4 Mycotoxins
24.5 Quantitation and Sampling Methods of Indoor Pollution Causing Fungi
24.6 Management Strategies
24.6.1 Physiochemical Methods for Purification of Indoor Pollution
24.6.2 Biotechnological Methods for Purification of Indoor Pollution
24.7 Conclusion
References