Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Applications (Mycology)

Fungal Biotechnoiogy In Agricultural, Food,and Environmental Applications......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
Contributors......Page 9
Contents......Page 6
1 Challenges For Food Security In This Century And Beyond......Page 13
Contents......Page 0
2.1.1 Molecular Maps......Page 14
2.1.2 Differential Cdna-aflp Screens......Page 15
2.1.4 Candidate Gene Validation......Page 16
2.2 Transgenic Plants As A Tool For Plant Protection......Page 17
2.2.1 Defense Pathways......Page 19
2.2.3 Phytotoxin Detoxi.cation......Page 20
3.4 Microarrays......Page 21
3.6 Plant Model Systems......Page 22
References......Page 23
1 Introduction......Page 30
2.2 Cultivation And Media For Metabolite Profiling......Page 31
3 Techniques For Metabolite Profiling......Page 32
3.1 Extraction......Page 33
3.2 Hplc......Page 34
3.3 Gas Chromatography And Gc – Ms......Page 35
3.4 Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Ms......Page 38
3.5 A Combined Approach: The Agar Plug-tlc Method......Page 42
References......Page 45
3 Isozyme Techniques For Fungi And Oomycetes......Page 47
3.3 Enzyme Activity Staining......Page 48
4.2 Interpretation Of Isozyme Banding Patterns In Diploids, Dikaryons, And Polyploids......Page 49
4.3 Choosing Among The Available Enzyme Systems......Page 50
5.2 Genetics......Page 51
References......Page 54
1.2 Assumptions And Limitations......Page 58
2 Methodologies......Page 59
3.2 Identification Of Pathogens Directly From Plant Parts......Page 61
References......Page 62
1 Introduction......Page 65
3 Types Of Molecular Markers......Page 66
3.3 Fingerprinting Methods......Page 67
3.4 Other Total Genome Approaches......Page 68
3.8 Combining Markers......Page 69
3.9 Selection Of Molecular Markers......Page 70
4 Analysing Data......Page 71
5 Following Plant Disease: A Case Study......Page 72
References......Page 73
1 Introduction......Page 77
2.1 Development Of Aflatoxin-resistance Screening Tools......Page 78
2.2 Identification Of Resistance-associated Proteins (raps) And Natural Compounds In Corn That Inhibit Aspergillus Flavus Growth And Aflatoxin Contamination......Page 79
2.3 Plant Breeding Strategies For Enhancing Host Resistance To Mycotoxigenic Fungi......Page 80
2.4 Genetic Engineering Strategies To Enhance Host Resistance To Mycotoxin Contamination......Page 81
3 Conclusions......Page 82
References......Page 83
2 Biopesticide Potential Of Entomopathogenic Fungi......Page 86
2.1 Biopesticides Based On Fungi......Page 88
2.2 Production, Formulation, And Application......Page 89
2.3 Novel Strategies For Biopesticide Use......Page 90
4 Molecular Genetics Of Entomopathogenic Fungi......Page 91
4.2 Strain Improvement Through Biotechnology......Page 92
6 Safety Of Entomopathogenic Fungi......Page 93
7 Conclusions......Page 94
References......Page 95
3 Structure......Page 98
4 Biogenesis......Page 99
5.2.1 History......Page 100
5.2.4 Maintenance Improvement And Long-term Preservation......Page 101
5.3.2 Submerged Cultivation......Page 102
References......Page 103
2.1.1 Pgpf In Trichoderma......Page 107
2.2.2 Mineralization......Page 109
2.3.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhiza......Page 110
3.2 Mycorrhizae......Page 111
4.1 Antagonism......Page 112
4.2 Induced Resistance......Page 113
References......Page 114
2 Status Of Bioherbicides......Page 117
3.1 Biological Factors......Page 118
3.3 Technological Factors......Page 119
4.1 Selection And Improvement Of Bioherbicide Agents......Page 120
4.2 Fermentation/ Mass Production......Page 121
4.3 Formulation......Page 122
4.5 Herbicide Synergy......Page 123
References......Page 124
1 Introduction......Page 128
3 Microbial Metabolites As Antifungal Leads......Page 129
3.2.1 Streptomyces, The Largest Reservoir Of Diverse Chemical Structures......Page 130
3.2.2 Rare Actinomycetes, New Resource Of Microbial Metabolites......Page 131
4 Potential Targets For Discovery Of Antifungal Leads......Page 132
4.3 Acetyl-coa Carboxylase (acc)......Page 133
5 Future Trends In Biofungicide Research......Page 134
References......Page 135
2 Trichoderma Biocontrol Taxa And Strains......Page 139
3 In Situ Molecular Tools For Biocontrol Strains......Page 140
4 Genome Organization And Reproduction......Page 141
5 Molecular Genetic Basis Of Biocontrol......Page 142
6 Biocontrol-specific Gene Expression In Trichoderma......Page 143
6.1 Cis And Trans-acting Genetic Factors Relevant To The Expression Of Biocontrol Genes......Page 144
References......Page 146
2 Trichoderma As A Biological Control Agent......Page 150
2.2 Host Invasion......Page 151
3 Expression Of Mycoparasitism Related Genes (mrgs)......Page 153
5 Role Of Mrgs In Biocontrol And Strain Improvement......Page 154
8 Plant Growth Promotion......Page 155
References......Page 156
1 Introduction......Page 160
3.1.1 Trichoderma Species Identi.cation......Page 161
3.1.4 Biotechnological Manipulations Of Trichoderma......Page 163
3.3 Nonpathogenic Fungi As Biocontrol Agents Of Seedling, Root, Crown, And Vascular Wilt Diseases......Page 164
4.1 Biocontrol Of Gray Mold......Page 165
4.1.3 Mechanisms Of Action Of Yeasts Against Botrytis Cinerea......Page 166
4.3.1 Fungi As Biological Control Agents Of Powdery Mildews......Page 167
4.3.2 Yeasts As Biological Control Agents Of Powdery Mildew......Page 168
5 Conclusions......Page 169
References......Page 170
2 Pathogens Targeted For Bcpd Of Fruits......Page 175
3 Antagonist Selection......Page 176
5 Improving Bcpd......Page 177
6 Integrating Bcpd With Other Alternatives......Page 178
7 Commercialization Of Bcpd......Page 179
References......Page 180
2.1 Phytopathogenic Fungi......Page 184
2.2 Plant Pathogenic Bacteria......Page 185
3.1.1 Improved Plant Nutrition......Page 186
3.3 Physiological And Biochemical Alterations Of The Host......Page 187
3.3.3 Hydrolases......Page 188
4.2 Strategies......Page 189
5 Conclusions......Page 190
References......Page 191
1 Introduction......Page 196
2.1 Pot-based Techniques......Page 197
3 Benefits Of Mycorrhizal Inoculation......Page 198
4.1 Interaction Of Natural Biofertilizers......Page 199
6 Major Constraints And Solutions In Commercialization Of Am Biofertilizer......Page 200
6.2 List Of Producers And Formulators Of Commercial Am Inoculum......Page 201
References......Page 203
2.2 Animal-parasitic Nematodes......Page 205
3 What Is A Nematophagous Fungus?......Page 206
4.3 Fungi......Page 207
5.1.1 Nematode-trapping Fungi......Page 208
5.1.3 Interference With Nematode Chemoreception......Page 210
6 Biological Control Of Plantparasitic Nematodes......Page 211
6.2 Fungal Biocontrol Delivery Systems For Nematodes......Page 212
References......Page 213
2 Current Food Supply And Demand......Page 216
4 Fungal Biotechology In Food Production......Page 217
5.1 Food-use Enzyme Production......Page 218
5.4 Fermentation Technology And Downstream Processing......Page 219
References......Page 220
2 Acid-fermented Leavened Bread And Pancakes......Page 222
3 Fermented Milk Products......Page 223
4 Alcoholic Food And Beverages (mostly Cereal-based)......Page 224
5 Fruit-based Alcoholic Beverages......Page 225
8 Legume-based Fermented Foods......Page 226
11 Tuber Crop-based Fermented Food......Page 227
15 Conclusions......Page 228
References......Page 229
2 World Production Of Mushrooms......Page 231
3 Nutritional And Medicinal Values Of Mushrooms......Page 232
4.1 Spawn Production......Page 233
5.1.1 Long Method Of Composting......Page 235
5.1.4 Growing Or Cropping......Page 236
6.1 Pleurotus Spp. (oyster Mushrooms)......Page 237
6.2 Lentinula Edodes (shiitake)......Page 238
6.3 Volvariella Spp. (paddy Straw Mushroom)......Page 240
6.4 Auricularia Spp. (wood Ear Mushroom)......Page 241
8 Edible Fungi And Recycling Of The Wastes/residues......Page 242
References......Page 243
1 Historical Background......Page 245
2.1.1 Composition......Page 246
2.1.2 Protein Value......Page 247
2.2 Mycoprotein Production (quorn Products)......Page 248
2.3 Related Products......Page 249
3.2 Inactive Formulations......Page 250
4 Safety And Quality Control Of Microbial Protein Products......Page 251
References......Page 252
2.1 Yeast Species Diversity During Vini.cation......Page 254
3.1.1 Ribosomal Rna Gene Sequencing......Page 255
3.1.2 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Of Rdna......Page 256
3.3 Study Of Yeast Population Dynamics During Natural Wine Fermentations......Page 257
3.6 Future Methods......Page 259
4.2.2 Gene Expression Variability In Wine Yeast......Page 260
References......Page 261
1 Introduction......Page 265
2 Proteolytic Activity......Page 266
4.3 Yoghurt......Page 267
4.5 Other Fermented Milk Products......Page 268
4.6.1 Yeast In Surface Ripened Cheese......Page 269
4.6.3 Yeast In White Mold Cheese......Page 270
4.6.4 Contribution And Spoilage Of Yeast In Other Types Of Cheese......Page 271
6 Conclusion......Page 272
References......Page 273
2.1.1 Monoterpenes......Page 276
2.1.2 Other Compounds......Page 277
2.3 Complex Flavors......Page 280
References......Page 281
2 Organic Acids......Page 285
2.2 Benzoic Acid......Page 286
4 Metabolites From Lactic Acid Bacteria......Page 287
7 Phenolic Acids......Page 288
9 Interaction Of Factors......Page 289
References......Page 290
2.1 Hybridization-based Methods......Page 292
2.2.3 Quantification Of Results......Page 293
2.2.4 Limits Of Pcr......Page 294
3.1.1 18 S Rrna Gene As Target......Page 295
3.2.1 Aflatoxins......Page 296
3.2.4 Other Mycotoxin Biosynthetic Genes......Page 297
4 Conclusions......Page 298
References......Page 299
1 Introduction......Page 303
2.1.1 Fundamental Principles......Page 304
2.1.4 Moisture Sorption Isotherms......Page 305
3.2 Mycoflora......Page 306
4 Ecology Of Germination, Growth, And Mycotoxin Production......Page 307
4.1 Interaction Between Grain Fungi, Environmental Factors, And Niche Occupation......Page 309
6 Respiration And Dry Matter Losses......Page 310
8 Enzyme Changes As An Indicator Of Deterioration......Page 311
10 Fungal Volatiles As An Early Indicator Of Deterioration......Page 312
References......Page 313
1.2 Historical Background......Page 316
2.2 Factors Affecting Mycotoxin Production......Page 317
3.1.1 General Considerations......Page 318
3.1.4 Impact On Human Health......Page 319
3.2.2 Toxicological Effects And Mode Of Action......Page 320
3.3.2 Toxicologic Effects......Page 321
3.4.2 T-2 Toxin And Related Type A Tctcs......Page 323
3.5.1 Other Mycotoxins Produced By Aspergillus......Page 324
3.5.2 Other Mycotoxins Produced By Penicillium......Page 325
3.5.4 Mycotoxins Produced By Alternaria Species......Page 326
4.1.2 Postharvest Control......Page 327
4.2.3 Dietary Modi.cations......Page 328
References......Page 329
2.1 Occurrence And Toxicology......Page 334
2.2 The Clustering Of A.atoxin Biosynthetic Pathway Genes......Page 336
2.3.2 Nor To Averantin (avn)......Page 337
2.3.8 Ver B To Versicolorin A (ver A)......Page 338
2.4.1 Genetic Regulation......Page 339
2.4.3 Environmental In.uences......Page 340
3.2 Clustering Of Trichothecene Biosynthetic Pathway Genes......Page 342
3.4 Regulation Of Trichothecene Biosynthesis......Page 343
4.1 Occurrence And Toxicology......Page 344
References......Page 345
2 Biomass As A Sugar Source......Page 353
2.2.1 Carbon Source......Page 354
2.2.4 Aeration......Page 355
3.1 Cellulose Degradation......Page 356
3.2.1 Process Description......Page 358
4.1 Economic Analysis Of Ethanol Conversion Technologies......Page 359
4.2 Costs And Bene.ts Of Ethanol Production......Page 360
References......Page 362
2 Woodland Ecosystems As A Global Resource......Page 364
3 The Fungal Habit......Page 365
5 Describing The Roles Of Fungi......Page 366
5.2 Mycorrhizae......Page 367
5.3.1 Leaf-litter Decomposition At The Substratum Community Scale......Page 369
5.3.2 Attached And Fallen Wood Decay At The Substratum Community Scale......Page 371
5.3.3 Community Studies At The Forest Ecosystem Scale......Page 372
6 Fungal Diversity, Environmental Change, And Conservation......Page 373
7 Modeling Fungal Decay Communities......Page 374
7.2 Modeling Fungal Community Dynamics......Page 375
References......Page 377
2 Brown Rot And Soft Rot Fungi......Page 382
3 White Rot Fungi......Page 383
4 Ligninolytic System Of White Rot Fungi......Page 384
4.1.1 Properties......Page 386
4.1.3 Role Of Veratryl Alcohol During Lip-catalyzed Oxidation......Page 387
4.4.2 Role Of Lac In Lignin Degradation......Page 388
4.7 Reactive Oxygen Species......Page 389
5 Physiological Requirements For Lignin Degradation By White Rot Fungi......Page 390
References......Page 391
1 Introduction......Page 397
3.1 Biosorption......Page 398
3.2 Heavy Metal Biosorption......Page 399
3.6 Commercial Applications......Page 401
5 Limitations And Potential......Page 402
References......Page 403
2 Organisms Degrading Lignin......Page 406
4 Ligninolysis And Decolorization By Enzymes......Page 407
4.3 Laccase: Role And Function In Lignin Biodegradation......Page 408
6.1 Structure Of The Dye......Page 409
6.4 Production And Purification Of Laccase From Pycnoporus Cinnabarinus......Page 410
7.1 Laccase And Remazol Brilliant Blue......Page 411
7.4 Variation In Enzyme......Page 412
References......Page 413
2 Distillery Waste......Page 417
3.2 Filamentous Fungi......Page 418
4 Bioconversion Process......Page 419
5 Products And Effects......Page 421
6 Economic Considerations......Page 425
References......Page 426
1 Introduction......Page 429
2 Alkanes And Alkenes......Page 430
3 Terpenes......Page 431
4 Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 432
6 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 434
7 Hydrocarbon Degradation By Mixed Cultures......Page 436
References......Page 437
2 Decolorization And Biodegradation Of Azo Dyes By White Rot Fungi......Page 442
3 Decolorization And Odegradation Of Azo Dyes By Fungi Other Than White Rot Fungi......Page 448
4 Selected Aspects Of The Enzymology Of Azo Dye Degradation By White Rot Fungi......Page 449
6 Development Of Bioreactors Used For Remediation Of Azo Dye Containing Wastewater......Page 451
7 Conclusions......Page 452
References......Page 453
2.1 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (tnt)......Page 455
3 Biodegradation Of Tnt By Fungi......Page 456
5 Biodegradation Of Rdx/hmx By Fungi......Page 459
7.2 Use Of Anti-oxidants To Control Quenching......Page 460
7.5 Use Of Sorption Strategies......Page 461
References......Page 462
1 Introduction......Page 465
4.2 Carbon Allocation......Page 466
6 Recovery Of Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 467
7.4 Managing Natural Reinvasion......Page 468
8.2 Isolating And Culturing Fungi......Page 469
9 Mycorrhizae And Bioremediation......Page 470
10 Mycorrhizae And Biotechnology......Page 471
References......Page 472