Fundamentals of RF and Microwave Techniques and Technologies

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
The Authors of this Book
1 Resonant Circuits, One-Port Networks, Coupling Filters Made of Lumped, Passive Components
1.1 Vector Diagrams for Inductances and Capacitors with Losses
1.2 Parallel and Series Resonant Circuits
1.2.1 Lossless Resonant Circuits
1.2.2 Resonant Circuits with Resistive Losses
1.2.3 Resonant Circuits with Multiple Resistances
1.2.4 Multiple Feed Circuit Made of Lumped Elements
1.3 Coupling Band Filters in Transmission Systems
1.3.1 Two-Circuit Coupling Band Filters
1.3.2 Matching Circuits
1.3.3 Multicircuit Coupling Band Filters
1.3.4 Losses in Reactance Filters
1.4 Principle of Conservation of Energy, Impedance, Admittance and Quality Factor Definitions
1.4.1 The Principle of Conservation of Energy in Network Theory
1.4.2 Impedance and Admittance
1.4.3 Definition of the Quality Factor from the Phase Angle
1.4.4 Definition of the Quality Factor with the Aid of the Total Stored Energy
1.4.5 Definition of the Quality Factor from the Phase Slope
1.4.6 Definition of the Quality Factor from the Bandwidth at Resonance
References
2 Wave Propagation on Transmission Lines and Cables
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves on Transmission Lines
2.2.1 Equivalent-Circuit Representation of the Line and Derivation of the Telegrapher's Equation
2.2.2 Solution of the Telegraphers' Equation: Propagation Constants and Characteristic Impedance of the Line
2.2.3 Phase and Group Velocity
2.2.4 Exact Representation of the Attenuation and Phase Coefficients
2.2.5 Frequency Dependency of the Characteristic Impedance
2.3 The Reflection Coefficient
2.3.1 Chain Matrix Description of the Transmission Line
2.3.2 The Reflection Coefficient
2.3.3 Transformation of Reflection Factors Through a Transmission Line
2.3.4 Voltages and Currents on Transmission Lines and the Standing-Wave Ratio
2.3.5 Transmission Line Resonators
2.3.6 Reflection Coefficient, Transported Effective Power and Matching of Lossy Lines
2.4 Matching Techniques
2.4.1 Transmission-Line Charts
2.4.2 Narrow-Band Matching Techniques
2.4.3 Broadband Matching Techniques
2.4.4 Application Examples for the Smith Chart
2.5 Scattering Parameters
2.5.1 S-Matrix for Lossless Multiports
2.5.2 Deriving the S-Matrix of a Multiport
2.5.3 Wave Chain Matrix
2.5.4 Calculating Networks Based on S-Parameters
2.5.5 Example: FET and HBT Amplifier Matching
References
3 Impedance Transformers and Balanced-to-Unbalanced Transformers
3.1 High-Frequency Transformers Overview
3.1.1 Transformers for Impedance Transformation
3.1.2 Resonance Transformers Consisting of Lumped Elements
3.1.3 Line Transformers Consisting of Homogeneous, Low-Loss Lines
3.1.4 Line Transformation with Inhomogeneous Low-Loss Lines
3.1.5 Transformers in Microstrip Technology
3.2 Matching Between Balanced and Unbalanced Lines
3.2.1 Balancing Transformer
3.2.2 Baluns Consisting of Line Elements
3.2.3 Broadband Line Transformers for Transformation and Balancing Made of Lines and Ferrite Components
References
4 Properties of Coaxial Cables and Transmission Lines, Directional Couplers and RF Filters
4.1 Properties of Coaxial Cables and Transmission Lines
4.1.1 Concept of the Wave Impedance
4.1.2 Characteristic Impedance of a Line and Capacitance Per Unit Length
4.1.3 Characteristic Impedance of a Line and Inductance Per Unit Length
4.1.4 Power Transfer and Power Density
4.1.5 Voltage Loading, Line Attenuation and Heat Limitation in High Power Cables
4.1.6 Optimal Coaxial Cables
4.2 Striplines
4.2.1 Overview of Different Designs and Applications
4.2.2 Field Types in Striplines
4.2.3 Quasi-static Line Constants
4.2.4 Stripline (Triplateline)
4.2.5 Microstrip
4.2.6 Coplanar Waveguides
4.2.7 Coplanar Strips
4.2.8 Slotlines
4.3 Coupled TEM-Wave Lines
4.3.1 Line Differential Equations
4.3.2 Even- and Odd-Mode Excitation
4.3.3 Chain Matrix
4.4 S-Matrix for Matched Couplers and Power Dividers
4.4.1 Conditions for Non-dissipative Combiners and Dividers and the Even-Mode—Odd-Mode Analysis
4.5 Ring Couplers (180° and 90° Hybrid)
4.6 Directional Couplers
4.6.1 S-Matrix for Termination with the Characteristic Impedance of the Line
4.7 TEM Wave Directional Couplers
4.7.1 Definitions and Illustration of the Directional Effect
4.7.2 Spatially Dependent Coupling
4.7.3 Modified Coupling Sections for Attaining High Coupling
4.8 Matched Three-Port Network (Wilkinson Power Divider)
4.9 Microwave Filters Based on Lines
4.9.1 Richards Transformation
4.9.2 Bandstop Filter with Line Resonators, Circuit Transformations
4.9.3 Bandpass-Filters and Phase Shifters Made of Coupled Wave Lines
4.9.4 Interdigital and Comb Line Bandpass Filters
4.10 Tunable Filters
4.10.1 Impedance Matching
4.11 Surface Acoustic Wave Filters
4.11.1 Introduction
4.11.2 Interdigital Transducers
4.11.3 Interdigital Transducer Filters
4.11.4 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Filters with Low Insertion Loss
4.11.5 Other SAW Devices
References
5 Field-Based Description of Propagation on Waveguides
5.1 Maxwell’s Equations
5.1.1 Wave Equations for E and H, the Electrodynamic Potentials A and φ
5.1.2 Maxwell’s Equations in Component Representation
5.1.3 Wave Equations for the Axial Components EZ and HZ and the Remaining Components
5.1.4 Boundary Conditions for the Electric and Magnetic Field Quantities
5.1.5 Poynting Vector and Poynting’s Theorem
5.2 Relationships Between Field Theory and Transmission Line Theory
5.2.1 TEM Waves
5.2.2 Consideration of the Conductor Losses
5.2.3 Comparison of Lecher, Transmission Line and TEM Waves
5.3 Plane Waves in an Infinite, Piecewise Homogeneous Medium
5.3.1 Homogeneous Plane Wave, TEM Wave
5.3.2 TE Waves and TM Waves
5.3.3 Laws of Reflection and Refraction
5.4 Dielectric Waveguides
5.4.1 Dielectric Slab Waveguides
5.4.2 Cylindrical Dielectric Waveguides
5.4.3 Optical Fibers
5.5 Surface Waveguides
5.5.1 Dielectrically Coated Metal Slab
5.5.2 Dielectrically Coated Metal Wire
5.6 Metallic Waveguides for Higher Order Modes
5.6.1 The Parallel-Plate Line
5.6.2 The Rectangular Waveguide
5.6.3 The Circular Waveguide
5.6.4 Generalized telegrapher’s Equations. Waveguide Equivalent Circuits and Attenuation of Waveguide Waves
5.6.5 Coaxial Line with Higher Modes
5.7 Components Used in Waveguide Technology
5.7.1 Junctions with Rectangular Waveguides
5.7.2 Metallic Irises and Posts in Waveguides
5.7.3 Waveguide Loaded with Inhomogeneous Dielectric Material
5.7.4 Cavity Resonators
5.7.5 Waveguide and Dielectric Resonator Based Filters
5.7.6 Waveguide Directional Couplers
5.8 Wave Propagation in Gyromagnetic Media (Directional Components, Ferrites and Yttrium Iron Garnet Garnets)
5.8.1 Basic Principles
5.8.2 Application in Nonreciprocal Components
References
6 Antennas
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Hertzian Dipole
6.3 The Concept of Duality and the Small Loop
6.4 Antenna Parameters
6.4.1 Radiation Resistance
6.4.2 Directivity, Beamwidth and Equivalent Solid Angle
6.4.3 Efficiency and Gain
6.4.4 Near-Field and Far-Field
6.4.5 Polarization
6.4.6 Effective Length and Effective Aperture
6.4.7 Friis Transmission Equation
6.4.8 Effect of Earth’s Atmosphere and Radiation Power Exponent
6.5 Antenna Arrays
6.5.1 Image Principle and Monopole Antenna
6.5.2 The N-Element Linear Array
6.5.3 Beamforming Networks
6.5.4 The Two-Dimensional Array
6.5.5 Conformal Arrays
6.5.6 Mutual Coupling
6.6 Wire Antennas
6.6.1 Dipoles
6.6.2 Loop and Helix
6.6.3 Slot Antenna
6.6.4 Small Antennas
6.7 Aperture Antennas
6.7.1 Aperture Concept
6.7.2 Horn Antennas
6.7.3 Corrugated Horn und Dual-Mode Horn
6.7.4 Reflector Antennas
6.7.5 Lens Antennas
6.8 Patch and Planar Antennas
6.9 Antenna Measurement Techniques
References
7 Semiconductors and Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
7.1 Historical Approach to Physical Properties of Semiconductors
7.1.1 Conductivity of Semiconductors [80]
7.1.2 Intrinsic Conduction of Semiconductors (Ge, Si, GaAs, GaN)
7.1.3 Impurity Conduction (Doping)
7.1.4 Band Model of Semiconductors
7.1.5 Carrier Density as a Function of the Density of States and Fermi–Dirac Distribution
7.1.6 Electron Transfer Effect
7.2 Semiconductor Devices with Two Electrodes
7.2.1 The p–n Junction
7.2.2 The Metal–Semiconductor Junction
7.2.3 RF Diodes
7.2.4 Diodes for RF Oscillators
7.3 Bipolar Transistors
7.3.1 Manufacturing Techniques and Processing of Transistors
7.3.2 Current–Voltage Relationships (Ebers-Moll Equations)
7.3.3 Regions of Operation for Bipolar Transistors
7.3.4 Sets of Characteristic Curves for Bipolar Transistors
7.3.5 Bipolar Transistors as Amplifiers in Small-Signal Mode
7.3.6 Transfer Properties of Single—Stage Transistor Circuits
7.3.7 Temperature Dependency and Temperature Stabilization of Bipolar Transistors
7.3.8 Bipolar Transistors at Higher Frequencies
7.3.9 Bipolar Microwave Transistors
7.3.10 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBT)
7.4 Unipolar Transistors (Field-Effect Transistors)
7.4.1 Basic Principle, Embodiments and Characteristics
7.4.2 Small-Signal FETs
7.4.3 High-Power FETs
7.5 Analog High-Frequency Integrated Circuits (ICs)
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit Designs (MMICs)
7.5.3 Detailed Passive Components and Networks
7.5.4 Design Flow and Computer Aided Design (CAD)
7.5.5 Circuit Technology
References
8 Interference and Noise
8.1 Mathematical Description of Noise
8.1.1 Probability Density Function and Averages
8.1.2 Auto- and Cross-Correlation
8.1.3 Noise in the Frequency Domain
8.2 Physical Noise Sources
8.2.1 Shot Noise
8.2.2 Thermal Noise
8.2.3 1/f Noise
8.3 The Spot Noise Figure
8.3.1 Spot Noise Figure of Matched Cascaded Twoports
8.3.2 The Noise Measure and Its Significance in Cascade Connections
8.3.3 Spot Noise Figure of Matched Passive Twoports
8.4 Noise in Linear Multiports
8.4.1 Noise Parameters
8.4.2 Noise Circles
8.4.3 Noise Correlation Matrices
8.5 Noise in Transistors
8.5.1 Field-Effect Transistors
8.5.2 Bipolar Transistors
8.6 Antenna Noise
References
9 Amplifiers
9.1 Amplifier Characteristics in Complex Functions
9.1.1 Amplification and Gain
9.1.2 RF-Device Configurations
9.1.3 RF-Parameter Description of Small-Signal Amplifiers
9.2 RF-Feedback
9.2.1 Basic Principles
9.2.2 Basic Applications
9.2.3 Selective Amplifiers
9.3 Gain and Matching
9.3.1 Power Gain and Impedance Matching
9.3.2 Small-Signal Amplifier with Field Effect Transistors
9.3.3 Signal Flow Diagrams
9.3.4 Power Gain Definitions
9.3.5 Stability
9.3.6 Practical Stability
9.4 Amplifier Basics
9.4.1 Multistage Concepts and Interstage-Matching
9.4.2 Stability and Biasing
9.4.3 DC-/RF-Blocking
9.5 RF Small-Signal Amplifiers
9.5.1 High-Gain Amplifier
9.5.2 Low-Noise Amplifiers
9.5.3 Integrated Broadband Amplifier
9.5.4 Differential Amplifier
9.6 Nonlinear Effects and Large-Signal Behavior
9.6.1 Fundamental Device Limits
9.6.2 Large-Signal Characteristics and Nonlinear Distortions
9.6.3 Power Compression
9.6.4 Dependence of Gain on Impedances and Matching
9.6.5 Source and Load Reflection
9.6.6 The Generation of Harmonics
9.6.7 The Concept of a Loadline
9.6.8 Efficiency
9.6.9 Cascaded Intermodulation Products
9.6.10 The Frequency Pyramid
9.6.11 Linearity Concepts and Measures
9.7 Hybrid and Integrated Circuit Based Amplifiers
9.7.1 Lumped Elements and Hybrid Components
9.7.2 Integrated RF-Circuits
9.7.3 Passive RF-Components and Their Use for Matching
9.7.4 Transmission Lines and Parameters
9.7.5 mm-Wave and Sub-mm Wave Integrated Circuits
9.7.6 Cointegration of RF- and Digital-Functions
9.8 Design Rules and Layout
9.8.1 Design Rules
9.8.2 Layout
9.8.3 Thermal Limits
9.9 The ABC of Amplifier Classes
9.9.1 Classes-A, -B, -C
9.9.2 DC- and Load-Modulation
9.9.3 Class-D, Class-E, and Class-F Applications
9.9.4 General Harmonic Waveform Shaping
9.9.5 Continuous Modes
9.9.6 Switch-Mode Amplifiers
9.10 Problems
References
10 Oscillators and Frequency Synthesis
10.1 Oscillation Conditions and Stability Criteria
10.1.1 Linearized Time Domain Model
10.1.2 Feedback View of Oscillators
10.1.3 One-Port Negative Resistance Theory
10.2 Phase Noise
10.2.1 Effect of Phase Noise
10.2.2 Leeson's Empirical Phase Noise Model
10.2.3 Linear Analysis Approach
10.2.4 Mixer Analysis Approach
10.2.5 Hajimiri's Linear Time Variant Analysis Approach
10.3 Oscillators Using Negative Resistance Devices
10.3.1 Tunnel Diode Oscillators
10.3.2 Transferred Electron Devices (Gunn Elements) as Oscillators
10.3.3 Avalanche Transit Time Oscillators (Read and IMPATT Diodes)
10.3.4 Two-Terminal Oscillators with Transit-Time Tubes
10.4 Feedback Oscillators Using Two-Port Devices
10.4.1 General Considerations
10.4.2 LC Oscillators
10.4.3 RC Oscillators (Oscillation Condition)
10.4.4 Frequency Stability
10.4.5 Quartz Oscillators
10.4.6 Stabilization of the Oscillation Amplitude
10.5 Integrated-Circuit Oscillator Realizations Using GaAs-FET
10.5.1 Oscillator Circuits
10.6 Oscillators with Surface Acoustic Wave Resonators (SAW Oscillators)
10.6.1 Colpitts Oscillator Stabilized by SAW One-Port Resonator
10.6.2 Pierce Oscillator with SAW Two-Port Resonator
10.7 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators in CMOS Technologies
10.7.1 Ring Oscillators
10.7.2 LC Oscillators
10.7.3 Cross-Coupled Pair
10.7.4 Three-Point Oscillators
10.7.5 VCO Classes
10.7.6 Phase-Noise Optimization Techniques
10.7.7 Advanced Circuit Techniques
References
11 Frequency Synthesizer
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Building Blocks of Synthesizers
11.2.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillator
11.2.2 Reference Oscillator
11.2.3 Frequency Divider
11.2.4 Phase-Frequency Comparators
11.2.5 Diode Rings
11.2.6 Edge-Triggered JK Master–Slave Flip-Flops
11.3 Loop Filters—Filters for Phase Detectors Providing Voltage Output
11.4 Important Characteristics of Synthesizers
11.4.1 Frequency Range
11.4.2 Phase Noise
11.4.3 Spurious Response
11.5 Transient Behavior of Digital Loops Using Tri-State Phase Detectors
11.5.1 Pull-In Characteristic
11.5.2 Lock-In Characteristic
11.6 Loop Gain/Transient Response Examples
11.7 Practical Circuits
11.8 The Fractional-N Principle
11.9 Spur-Suppression Techniques
11.10 Digital Direct Frequency Synthesizer
11.10.1 DDS Advantages
References
12 Software Defined Radio, Receiver and Transmitter Analysis
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Image Rejection Mixer/Quadrature Mixer
12.3 The Sampling Theorem
12.4 The AD-Converter
12.5 The DA-Converter
12.6 The Digital Down-Converter
12.7 The Digital Up-Converter
12.8 Demodulation Algorithms
12.8.1 AM Demodulator
12.8.2 FM Demodulator
12.8.3 Data Demodulators
12.9 SDR Realisation Example
12.10 Phase Noise, Desensitization
12.11 Filters
12.12 Noise Blanker
12.13 Automatic Gain Control
12.14 The S-Meter
12.15 Spectrum Monitoring
12.16 Adaptive Transmitter Pre-distortion
References
13 Mixing and Frequency Multiplication
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Theory and Applications of Mixing
13.2.1 Mathematical Model
13.2.2 Heterodyne Receiver
13.3 Combination Frequencies in Nonlinear Components
13.3.1 Small-Signal Theory of Mixing
13.3.2 Upconversion, Downconversion, Common Position, Inverted Position, Image Frequency
13.4 Realization of Mixers
13.4.1 Mixing with Semiconductor Diodes as Nonlinear Resistors
13.4.2 Mixing with Semiconductor Diodes as Nonlinear Capacitors
13.4.3 Mixing with Transistors as Nonlinear Element
13.4.4 Mixing with Active Transistor Multipliers (Gilbert Cell)
13.5 Frequency Multiplication
13.5.1 Frequency Multiplication by Transistor Circuits
References
14 Modulation Methods
14.1 Outline
14.2 Information Signals
14.2.1 Analog Signals
14.2.2 Digital Signals
14.2.3 The Signal Bandwidth
14.2.4 Shaping of Digital Signals
14.3 Carrier Signals
14.3.1 Manipulation of Carrier Parameters
14.4 Comparison of Analog and Digital Modulation Methods
14.4.1 Analog Modulations
14.4.2 Digital Modulations
14.4.3 Semantic Classification of Digital Modulations
14.4.4 The Modulations in Detail
14.5 The Amplitude Modulations
14.6 AM, DSB and QAM
14.6.1 The Amplitude Modulation in Time Domain
14.6.2 Block Diagram AM Modulator
14.7 Spectrum of Amplitude Modulation
14.8 AM Modulation Degree
14.8.1 Compatibility
14.8.2 Definition of the Degree of Modulation
14.9 Power of AM
14.10 AM Demodulation
14.10.1 Envelope Demodulator (Asynchronous Demodulation)
14.10.2 Synchronous Demodulation of AM
14.11 Demodulation of DSB
14.11.1 Carrier Recovery for DSB with Costas Loop
14.12 Quadrature Double Sideband Modulation QDSB
14.12.1 QDSB Modulation and Demodulation
14.13 Angle Modulation
14.13.1 The Angle Modulation in the Time Domain
14.13.2 Relation of Phase- and Frequency Modulation
14.13.3 Cosine Information Signal
14.14 The Angle Modulation in the Frequency Domain
14.14.1 Phase Modulation with a Frequency Modulator
14.14.2 Generation of FM with a Phase Modulator
14.15 Spectra of Angle Modulation
14.15.1 Classical Analysis of FM
14.15.2 Spectral Distribution of the FM Signal for Cos-Shaped Message Signal
14.15.3 Spectral Distribution and Bandwidth of the FM Spectrum for the General Case of the Message Signal
14.15.4 Narrowband Modulation Spectrum
14.16 Modulators and Demodulators for PM and FM
14.16.1 Generation of Phase Modulation with I/Q Phase Modulator
14.16.2 Generation of a Frequency Modulation
14.16.3 Demodulation of a Phase Modulated Signal
14.16.4 Demodulation of a Frequency Modulation
14.17 Noise in FM
14.18 Digital Modulations
14.18.1 Block Diagram of the Digital Modulator
14.18.2 Information Transmission Analog and Digital
14.18.3 Properties of Signals in the Physical Transmission Channel
14.18.4 Block Diagrams of the Digital Transmission System
14.18.5 Channel Capacity and Shannon Limit
14.19 Baseband Signals
14.19.1 The Baseband Channel
14.19.2 The Transmitter Side
14.19.3 The Receiver's Side
14.20 Spectra of Digital Signals in the Baseband
14.20.1 Data with Statistical Independence
14.21 Inter-Symbol Interference and Nyquist Condition
14.22 Nyquist Condition
14.22.1 Ideal Low Pass as the Simplest Form that Meets Nyquist Condition 1
14.22.2 Generalization of the Nyquist Condition 1
14.22.3 Cosinus Roll Off
14.22.4 Smoothing Filter with Cosine Roll Off
14.22.5 Nyquist Condition 2
14.22.6 Symbol Rate and Spectral Efficiency for Cosine Roll Off Rounding
14.23 Root Raised Cosine
14.23.1 The Eye Diagram
14.24 Digital Single-Carrier Modulation Methods
14.24.1 Model of the Digital Modulator
14.24.2 Systematics of Digital Modulations
14.24.3 Quadrature Modulation Method: Intervention into the Amplitude of the Carriers
14.24.4 Amplitude-Phase Modulation Method: Intervention in Amplitude and Phase of the Carriers
14.25 The Complex Envelope
14.25.1 Representation of Modulation Schemes with the Aid of Complex Envelopes
14.25.2 The Vector Diagram
14.26 Quadrature Carrier System
14.26.1 Higher Level QAM
14.27 Modulations with Constant Envelope
14.27.1 From QPSK to Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
14.27.2 From OQPSK to MSK
14.27.3 CPM Methods with Rounded Data Symbols
14.27.4 The Gauss Rounding
14.28 Demodulation Techniques for Single Carrier Modulations
14.28.1 Principle Structure of the Receiver
14.28.2 Equivalent Low-Pass Signals
14.28.3 Block Diagrams of the Digital Demodulator
14.28.4 Synchronous Demodulation of MSK Signals
14.29 Synchronization of the Digital Receiver
14.30 Multicarrier Modulation
14.30.1 Terrestrial Radio Channel
14.30.2 Channel Equalization Methods
14.30.3 Multicarrier Modulation
14.30.4 OFDM Time Curves
14.31 The OFDM in the Frequency Domain
14.31.1 Higher-Level Symbol Constellations in the Subchannels
14.31.2 Pilot Symbols
14.31.3 Time and Frequency Dependence of the Channel Transfer Function
14.32 OFDM Modulators and Demodulators
14.32.1 Why IFFT in the Transmitter and FFT in the Receiver?
14.33 Power Density Spectrum of the OFDM
14.33.1 Power Density Spectrum in the Receiver and Orthogonality
14.33.2 Synchronization
14.34 From OFDM to COFDM
14.34.1 The Need for Error Protection Coding
14.34.2 Two-way Path and Punctured Convolution Codes
14.34.3 Interleaving
14.35 Single-Carrier Modulation with Frequency Domain Equalization
14.35.1 Relationship to OFDM
14.35.2 SC-FDE Block Structure
14.35.3 Frequency Domain Filtering
14.36 3GPP-LTE Upstream
14.36.1 SC-FDMA as an Access Method
14.37 Spread Spectrum Modulations
14.37.1 Principle of ``Direct Sequence'' Spreading Technique
14.37.2 Features of the Spread Spectrum Modulations
14.37.3 Definition of Spread Spectrum Methods
14.37.4 Binary Pseudo-Random Signals
14.37.5 Cross Correlation of PN Sequences
14.37.6 Direct Sequencing Spread Spectrum
14.37.7 The Processing Gain
14.37.8 Frequency Hopping Method
14.37.9 Time Hopping
14.37.10 Chirp Procedure
References
Appendix Appendix
A.1 Laws of Fourier Transformation
A.1.1 Multiplication and Convolution
A.1.2 Derivation of the Simplified Method of Convolution in the Time Domain
A.1.3 Examples for ``Simplified Convolution''
A.1.4 Forming of Data Symbols: Roll-Off
A.1.5 RDS Symbol and Spectrum
A.2 Frequency and Instantaneous Frequency
A.2.1 Frequency
A.2.1.1 Example: Vibrating Frequency Meter
A.2.2 Filter Bank
A.2.3 The Time-Bandwidth Law
A.2.4 Definition of the Term ``Frequency''
A.2.4.1 Contradictions in Other Definitions of Frequency
A.2.5 Relationship with the Natural Oscillation of the Measuring Instrument; Resonance
A.2.6 Walsh Functions as Prototype for Orthogonal Codes
A.3 The Instantaneous Frequency
A.3.1 The Frequency Deviation
A.4 The Hilbert Filter
A.4.1 Hilbert Allpass Filter
A.4.2 Hilbert Lowpass Filter
A.4.3 Hilbert Bandpass Filter
References
Index