Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes

Front-Matter_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
Copyright_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
Dedication_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
Contents_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
Contents
Preface_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
Preface
Acknowledgments_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
Acknowledgments
Chapter-1---Introduction_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
1 Introduction
1.1 Units and Constants
1.2 Energy and Utility
1.3 Conservation of Energy
1.4 Planetary Energy Balance
1.5 The Energy Utilization Rate
1.6 The Population Growth
1.7 Water Usage
1.8 The Market Penetration Function
1.9 Planetary Energy Resources
1.9.1 Mineral and Fossil Assets
1.10 Energy Utilization
1.11 The Efficiency Question
1.12 The Ecology Question—CO2 Emission and Concentrations
1.12.1 Biological
1.12.2 Mineral
1.12.3 Subterranean
1.12.4 Oceanic
1.13 Other Greenhouse Gases
1.14 Financing
1.15 The Cost of Electricity
Problems
References
Chapter-2---A-Minimum-of-Thermodynamics-and-o_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable
2 A Minimum of Thermodynamics and of the Kinetic Theory of Gases
2.1 The Motion of Molecules
2.1.1 Temperature
2.1.2 The Ideal Gas Law
2.1.3 Internal Energy
2.1.4 Specific Heat at Constant Volume
2.1.5 The Pressure-Volume Work
2.1.6 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
2.1.7 Degrees of Freedom
2.2 Thermodynamic System, State, Properties, and Process
2.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
2.4 Manipulating Confined Gases (Closed Systems)
2.4.1 Adiabatic Processes
2.4.1.1 Abrupt Compression
2.4.1.2 Gradual Compression
2.4.1.3 p-V Diagrams
2.4.1.4 Polytropic Law
2.4.1.5 Work Done Under Adiabatic Expansion (Closed System)
2.4.2 Isothermal Processes
2.4.2.1 Functions of State
2.5 Manipulating Flowing Gases (Open Systems)
2.5.1 Enthalpy
2.5.2 Turbines
2.6 Entropy and Irreversible Processes
2.6.1 Isentropic Processes
2.6.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
2.6.3 Changes in Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy
2.6.4 Reversibility
2.6.5 Causes of Irreversibility
2.6.5.1 Friction
2.6.5.2 Heat Transfer Across Temperature Differences
2.6.5.3 Unrestrained Compression, Expansion of a Gas
2.6.6 Exergy and Negentropy
2.7 Exergy Analysis and Thermodynamic Optimization
2.8 Distribution Functions
2.8.1 How to Plot Statistics
2.8.2 Maxwellian Distribution
2.8.3 Fermi–Dirac Distribution
2.9 Boltzmann's Law
2.10 Phases of a Pure Substance
Problems
References
Chapter-3---Mechanical-Heat-Engi_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Proce
3 Mechanical Heat Engines
3.1 Heats of Combustion
3.2 Carnot Efficiency
3.2.1 Using the T-s Diagram
3.3 Engine Types
3.3.1 Closed and Open Configurations
3.3.2 Heat Sources
3.3.3 Working Fluids
3.3.4 Compressor Types
3.3.5 Hardware Specificity
3.3.6 Type of Combustion and Ignition
3.3.7 Future Outlook
3.4 Four and Two Stroke Engines
3.5 The Otto Engine
3.5.1 The Efficiency of an Otto Engine
3.5.2 Improving the Efficiency of the Otto Engine
3.6 The Diesel Cycle
3.7 Gasoline
3.7.1 Heat of Combustion
3.7.2 Antiknock Characteristics
3.8 Knocking
3.9 Rankine Cycle
3.9.1 The Boiling of Water
3.9.2 Condenser and Pump
3.9.3 The Steam Engine – Steam Turbine
3.9.4 Increasing the Efficiency
3.9.5 And Now?
3.10 The Brayton Cycle
3.11 Combined Cycles
3.12 Hybrid Engines for Automobiles
3.13 The Stirling Engine
3.13.1 The Kinematic Stirling Engine
3.13.1.1 The Alpha Stirling Engine
Process 0 –>1 (Isothermal Compression)
Process 1 –>2 (Gas Transfer, Followed by Isometric Heat Addition)
Process 2 –>3 (Isothermal Expansion)
Process 3 –>0 (Isometric Heat Rejection)
3.13.1.2 The Beta Stirling Engine
3.13.1.3 The Implementation of the Kinematic Stirling
3.13.2 The Free Piston Stirling Engine
3.13.3 Power Cycles Summary
Problems
References
Chapter-4---Ocean-Thermal-Energy-Con_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-P
4 Ocean Thermal Energy Converters
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Ocean Temperature Profile
4.2 OTEC Configurations
4.2.1 OTEC Using Hydraulic Turbines
4.2.2 OTEC Using Vapor Turbines
4.3 OTEC Efficiency
4.4 Power Output and Volumetric Flow Rate
4.5 Worldwide OTEC Resources
4.6 An OTEC Design
4.7 Heat Exchangers
4.8 Siting
Problems
References
Chapter-5---Thermoelectricity_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processe
5 Thermoelectricity
5.1 Experimental Observations
5.2 Some Applications of Thermoelectric Generators
5.2.1 The Thermoelectric Generator
5.2.2 Design of a Thermoelectric Generator
5.2.3 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators
5.3 Thermoelectric Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
5.3.1 Design Using an Existing Thermocouple
5.3.2 Design Based on Given Semiconductors
5.4 Directions and Signs
5.5 Thermoelectric Thermometers
5.6 Figure of Merit of a Material
5.7 The Wiedemann–Franz–Lorenz Law
5.8 Thermal Conductivity in Solids
5.9 Seebeck Coefficient of Semiconductors
5.10 Performance of Thermoelectric Materials
5.11 Temperature Dependence
5.12 Battery Architecture
5.13 The Physics of Thermoelectricity
5.13.1 The Seebeck Effect
5.13.2 The Peltier Effect
5.13.3 The Thomson Effect
5.13.4 Kelvin's Relations
Problems
References
Chapter-6---Thermionics_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
6 Thermionics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Thermionic Emission
6.3 Electron Transport
6.3.1 The Child–Langmuir Law
6.4 Lossless Diodes With Space Charge Neutralization
6.4.1 Interelectrode Potentials
6.4.2 V-J Characteristics
6.4.3 The Open-Circuit Voltage
6.4.4 Maximum Power Output
6.5 Losses in Vacuum Diodes With No Space Charge
6.5.1 Efficiency
6.5.2 Radiation Losses
6.5.2.1 Radiation of Heat
6.5.2.2 Efficiency With Radiation Losses Only
6.5.3 Excess Electron Energy
6.5.4 Heat Conduction
6.5.5 Lead Resistance
6.6 Real Vacuum Diodes
6.7 Vapor Diodes
6.7.1 Cesium Adsorption
6.7.2 Contact Ionization
6.7.3 Thermionic Ion Emission
6.7.4 Space Charge Neutralization Conditions
6.7.5 More V-J Characteristics
6.8 High Pressure Diodes
Problems
References
Chapter-7---AMTEC-----Much-of-this-chapter-is-b_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewab
7 AMTEC
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Operating Principle
7.3 Vapor Pressure
7.4 Pressure Drop in the Sodium Vapor Column
7.5 Mean Free Path of Sodium Ions
7.6 V-I Characteristics of an AMTEC
7.7 Efficiency
7.8 Thermodynamics of an AMTEC
Problems
References
Chapter-8---Radio-Noise-Generato_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Proce
8 Radio-Noise Generators
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Operation
References
Chapter-9---Fuel-Cells_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
9 Fuel Cells
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Voltaic Cells
9.3 Fuel Cell Classification
9.3.1 Temperature of Operation
9.3.2 State of the Electrolyte
9.3.3 Type of Fuel
9.3.4 Chemical Nature of the Electrolyte
9.4 Fuel Cell Reactions
9.4.1 Alkaline Electrolytes
9.4.2 Acid Electrolytes
9.4.3 Molten Carbonate Electrolytes
9.4.4 Ceramic Electrolytes
9.4.5 Methanol Fuel Cells
9.4.6 Formic Acid Fuel Cells
9.5 Typical Fuel Cell Configurations
9.5.1 Demonstration Fuel Cell (KOH)
9.5.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)
9.5.2.1 A Fuel Cell Battery (Engelhard)
9.5.2.2 First-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant
9.5.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)
9.5.3.1 Second-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant
9.5.4 Ceramic Fuel Cells (SOFCs)
9.5.4.1 Third-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant
9.5.4.2 High Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells
9.5.4.3 Low Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells
9.5.5 Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells—PEMs
9.5.5.1 Cell Construction
9.5.5.1.1 Membrane
9.5.5.1.2 Catalysts
9.5.5.1.3 Water Management
9.5.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
9.5.7 Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFCs)
9.5.8 Solid Acid Fuel Cells (SAFCs)
9.5.9 Metallic Fuel Cells—Zinc-Air Fuel Cells
9.5.10 Microbial Fuel Cells
9.6 Fuel Cell Applications
9.6.1 Stationary Power Plants
9.6.2 Automotive Power Plants
9.6.3 Other Applications
9.7 The Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells
9.7.1 Heat of Combustion
9.7.2 Free Energy
9.7.3 Efficiency of Reversible Fuel Cells
9.7.4 Effects of Pressure and Temperature on the Enthalpy and Free Energy Changes of a Reaction
9.7.4.1 Enthalpy Dependence on Temperature
9.7.4.2 Enthalpy Dependence on Pressure
9.7.4.3 Free Energy Dependence on Temperature
9.7.4.4 Free Energy Dependence on Pressure
9.7.4.5 The Nernst Equation
9.7.4.6 Voltage Dependence on Temperature
9.8 Performance of Real Fuel Cells
9.8.1 Current Delivered by a Fuel Cell
9.8.2 Rates of Species Consumption and Production
9.8.3 Efficiency of Practical Fuel Cells
9.8.4 V-I Characteristics of Fuel Cells
9.8.4.1 Empirically Derived Characteristics
9.8.4.2 Scaling Fuel Cells
9.8.4.3 More Complete Empirical Characteristics of Fuel Cells
9.8.5 Open-Circuit Voltage
9.8.6 Reaction Kinetics
9.8.6.1 Reaction Rates
9.8.6.2 Activation Energy
9.8.6.3 Catalysis
9.8.7 The Butler–Volmer Equation
9.8.7.1 Exchange Currents
9.8.8 Transport Losses
9.8.9 Heat Dissipation by Fuel Cells
9.8.9.1 Heat Removal From Fuel Cells
9.9 Appendix: Specific Heats of H2, O2, and H2O
Problems
References
Chapter-10---Hydrogen-Productio_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Proces
10 Hydrogen Production
10.1 Generalities
10.2 Chemical Production of Hydrogen
10.2.1 History
10.2.2 Metal-Water Hydrogen Production
10.2.3 Large-Scale Hydrogen Production
10.2.3.1 Partial Oxidation
10.2.3.2 Steam Reforming
10.2.3.3 Thermal Decomposition
10.2.3.4 Syngas
10.2.3.5 Shift Reaction
10.2.3.6 Methanation
10.2.3.7 Methanol
10.2.3.8 Syncrude
10.2.4 Hydrogen Purification
10.2.4.1 Desulfurization
10.2.4.2 CO2 Removal
10.2.4.3 CO Removal and Hydrogen Extraction
10.2.4.4 Hydrogen Production Plants
10.2.5 Compact Fuel Processors
10.2.5.1 Formic Acid
10.3 Electrolytic Hydrogen
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Electrolyzer Configurations
10.3.2.1 Liquid Electrolyte Electrolyzers
10.3.2.2 Solid Polymer Electrolyte Electrolyzers
10.3.2.3 Ceramic Electrolyte Electrolyzers
10.3.2.4 High Efficiency Steam Electrolyzers
10.3.3 Efficiency of Electrolyzers
10.3.4 Concentration-Differential Electrolyzers
10.3.5 Electrolytic Hydrogen Compression
10.4 Thermolytic Hydrogen
10.4.1 Direct Dissociation of Water
10.4.2 Chemical Dissociation of Water
10.4.2.1 Mercury-Hydrobromic Acid Cycle
10.4.2.2 Barium Chromate Cycle
10.4.2.3 Sulfur-Iodine Cycle
10.5 Photolytic Hydrogen
10.5.1 Generalities
10.5.2 Solar Photolysis
10.6 Photobiologic Hydrogen Production
10.7 Target Cost
Problems
References
Chapter-11---Hydrogen-Storage_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processe
11 Hydrogen Storage
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 DOE Targets for Automotive Hydrogen Storage
11.2 Compressed Gas
11.3 Cryogenic Hydrogen
11.4 Storage of Hydrogen by Adsorption
11.5 Storage of Hydrogen in Chemical Compounds
11.5.1 Generalities
11.5.2 Hydrogen Carriers
11.5.3 Water Plus a Reducing Substance
11.5.4 Formic Acid
11.5.5 Metal Hydrides
11.5.5.1 Characteristics of Hydride Materials
11.5.5.1.1 Plateau Slope
11.5.5.1.2 Sorption Hysteresis
11.5.5.1.3 Usable Capacity
11.5.5.1.4 Heat Capacity
11.5.5.1.5 Plateau Pressure Dependence on Temperature
11.5.5.2 Thermodynamics of Hydride Systems
11.6 Hydride Hydrogen Compressors
11.7 Hydride Heat Pumps
Problems
References
Chapter-12---Solar-Radiation_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
12 Solar Radiation
12.1 The Nature of Solar Radiation
12.2 Irradiance
12.2.1 Generalities
12.2.2 Irradiance on a Sun-Tracking Surface
12.2.3 Irradiance on a Stationary Surface
12.2.4 Horizontal Surfaces
12.3 Solar Collectors
12.3.1 Solar Architecture
12.3.1.1 Exposure Control
12.3.1.2 Thermal Energy Storage
12.3.1.3 Circulation
12.3.1.4 Insulation
12.3.2 Flat Collectors
12.3.3 Evacuated Tubes
12.3.4 Concentrators
12.3.4.1 Holographic Plates
12.3.4.2 Nonimaging Concentrators
12.3.4.3 Common Concentration Systems for Power Generation
12.4 Some Solar Plant Configurations
12.4.1 High Temperature Solar Heat Engine
12.4.2 Solar Tower (Solar Chimney)
12.4.3 Solar Ponds
12.5 Time Corrections
12.5.1 Time Zones
12.5.2 Time Offset
12.6 Appendix I: The Measurement of Time
12.6.1 How Long Is an Hour?
12.6.2 The Calendar
12.6.3 The Julian Day Number
12.7 Appendix II: Orbital Mechanics
12.7.1 Sidereal Versus Solar
12.7.2 Orbital Equation
12.7.3 Relationship Between Ecliptic and Equatorial Coordinates
12.7.4 The Equation of Time
12.7.5 Orbital Eccentricity
12.7.6 Orbital Obliquity
12.7.7 Further Reading
Problems
References
Chapter-13---Biomass_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
13 Biomass
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Composition of Biomass
13.3 Biomass as Fuel
13.3.1 Wood Gasifiers
13.3.2 Ethanol
13.3.2.1 Ethanol Production
13.3.2.2 Fermentation
13.3.2.3 Ethanol From Corn
13.3.2.4 Drawback of Ethanol
13.3.3 Dissociated Alcohols
13.3.4 Anaerobic Digestion
13.4 Photosynthesis
13.5 Microalgae
13.6 A Little Bit of Organic Chemistry
13.6.1 Hydrocarbons
13.6.2 Oxidation Stages of Hydrocarbons
13.6.3 Esters
13.6.4 Saponification
13.6.5 Waxes
13.6.6 Carbohydrates
13.6.7 Heterocycles
Problems
References
Chapter-14---Photovoltaic-Convert_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Proc
14 Photovoltaic Converters
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Building Techniques
14.3 Overview of Semiconductors
14.4 Basic Operation
14.5 Theoretical Efficiency
14.6 Carrier Multiplication
14.7 Spectrally Selective Beam Splitting
14.7.1 Cascaded Cells
14.7.1.1 Multiband Semiconductors
14.7.2 Filtered Cells
14.7.3 Holographic Concentrators
14.8 Thermophotovoltaic Cells
14.9 The Ideal and the Practical
14.10 Solid State Junction Photodiode
14.10.1 Effect of Light Power Density on Efficiency
14.10.2 Effect of Reverse Saturation Current
14.10.3 Effect of Operating Temperature on Efficiency
14.10.4 Effect of Load on Efficiency
14.11 The Reverse Saturation Current
14.12 Practical Efficiency
14.13 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)
14.14 Organic Photovoltaic Cells (OPCs)
14.14.1 Conducting Polymers
14.14.1.1 Band Structure in Inorganic Semiconductors
14.14.2 Polymer Solar Cells
14.15 Perovskite Solar Cells
14.16 Optical Rectennas
14.17 Solar Power Satellite
14.17.1 Beam From Space
14.17.2 Solar Energy to DC Conversion
14.17.3 Microwave Generation
14.17.4 Radiation System
14.17.5 Receiving Array
14.17.6 Attitude and Orbital Control
14.17.7 Space Transportation and Space Construction
14.17.8 Future of Space Solar Power Projects
Appendix A: Values of Two Definite Integrals Used in the Calculation of Photodiode Performance
Problems
References
Chapter-15---Wind-Energy_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
15 Wind Energy
15.1 History
15.2 Wind Machine Configurations
15.2.1 Drag-Type Wind Turbines
15.2.2 Lift-Type Wind Turbines
15.2.3 Magnus Effect Wind Machines
15.2.4 Vortex Wind Machines
15.3 Measuring the Wind
15.3.1 The Rayleigh Distribution
15.3.2 The Weibull Distribution
15.4 Availability of Wind Energy
15.5 Wind Turbine Characteristics
15.6 Principles of Aerodynamics
15.6.1 Flux
15.6.2 Power in the Wind
15.6.3 Dynamic Pressure
15.6.4 Wind Pressure
15.6.5 Available Power (Betz Limit)
15.6.5.1 The Rankine–Froude Theorem
15.6.6 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine
15.6.6.1 Solidity
15.6.6.2 Wake Rotation
15.6.6.3 Other Losses
15.7 Airfoils
15.8 Reynolds Number
15.9 Aspect Ratio
15.10 Wind Turbine Analysis
15.10.1 Horizontal Axis Turbines (Propeller Type)
15.10.2 Vertical Axis Turbines
15.10.2.1 Aspect Ratio (of a Wind Turbine)
15.10.2.2 Centrifugal Force
15.10.2.3 Performance Calculation
15.11 Magnus Effect
15.12 Computational Tools and Other Resources
Problems
References
Chapter-16---Ocean-Engines_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
16 Ocean Engines
16.1 Wave Energy
16.1.1 About Ocean Waves – Terminology
16.1.2 The Velocity of Ocean Waves
16.1.3 Wave Height
16.1.4 Energy and Power in a Wave
16.1.5 Wave Energy Converters
16.1.5.1 Offshore Wave Energy Converters
16.1.5.2 Heaving Buoy Converters
16.1.5.3 Hinged Contour Converters
16.1.5.4 Overtopping Converters
16.1.5.5 Shoreline Wave Energy Converters
16.1.5.6 Tapered Channel System
16.1.5.7 Oscillating Water Column (OWC)—Wavegen System
16.2 Tidal Energy
16.2.1 The Nature of Tides
16.2.2 Energy and Power in Tides
16.2.3 Tidal Energy Converters
16.3 Energy From Currents
16.3.1 Marine Current Turbine System
16.3.1.1 Horizontal Forces
16.3.1.2 Anchoring Systems
16.3.1.3 Corrosion and Biological Fouling
16.3.1.4 Cavitation
16.3.1.5 Large Torque
16.3.1.6 Maintenance
16.3.1.7 Power Transmission
16.3.1.8 Turbine Farms
16.3.1.9 Ecology
16.3.1.10 Modularity
16.4 Salination Energy
16.5 Osmosis
16.6 Further Reading
Problems
References
Chapter-17---Nuclear-Energy_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
17 Nuclear Energy
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Fission Reactors
17.2.1 Generations of Nuclear Fission Reactors
17.2.2 Nomenclature and Units
17.2.3 Fission – How Current Reactors Work
17.2.3.1 Heavy-Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
17.2.3.2 High Temperature Gas Reactors (HTGRs)
17.3 Fusion Reactors
17.3.1 Magnetic Confinement
17.3.1.1 Pinch Instability
17.3.2 Inertial Confinement
Problems
References
Chapter-18---Storage-of-Energy_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Process
18 Storage of Energy
18.1 Generalities
18.1.1 Ragone Plot
18.2 Electrochemical Storage (Batteries)
18.2.1 Introduction
18.2.2 Capacity
18.2.3 The Chemistry of Some Batteries
18.2.3.1 What All Batteries Have in Common
18.2.3.2 Primary Batteries
18.2.3.3 Secondary Batteries
18.3 Capacitive Storage
18.3.1 Capacitors
18.3.2 Supercapacitors
18.3.3 Hybrid Capacitors
18.3.4 Using Capacitors for Energy Storage
18.3.4.1 Discharging Capacitors
18.3.4.2 Interconnecting Capacitors
18.4 Flywheels and Pumped Storage
18.4.1 Kinetic Energy Storage
18.4.2 Gravitational Potential Energy Storage
18.5 Thermal Energy Storage
Problems
References
Index_2022_Fundamentals-of-Renewable-Energy-Processes
Index