Fundamentals of Ground Radar for Air Traffic Control Engineers and Technicians

Front Matter......Page 1
List of Illustrations......Page 3
Preface......Page 13
Table of Contents......Page 15
1.2 Propagation of Electrical Waves......Page 31
1.5 Pulsed Radar......Page 32
1.7 Radar Developments from 1930 through 1940......Page 33
1.9 The Pearl Harbor Surprise Attack......Page 34
1.11 The Explosion of Radar Science in World War II......Page 35
1.12 Electronic Countermeasures and Aircraft Identification......Page 36
1.13 The Landing Radar......Page 37
1.15 GCA and Civilian Air Traffic Control......Page 39
1.19 The Joint-Use ARSR Program......Page 40
1.20 Airport Surface Detection Equipment 䄀匀䐀䔀......Page 42
References......Page 43
Review Questions......Page 44
Answers to Review Questions......Page 45
2.2 Radar Technicians in World War II......Page 47
2.6 The Scientific Approach......Page 48
2.12 Ego versus Truth......Page 50
2.14 Talents Required of the Radar Technician......Page 51
2.15 Professional Responsibility......Page 52
Review Questions......Page 53
Answers to Review Questions......Page 54
3.3 DeciBels to Express Gain or Attenuation......Page 55
3.4 Expression of Power in dBW or dBm......Page 56
3.6 Mental Approximations......Page 57
3.8 Peak and Average Power Measurement......Page 58
3.10 Decibels in Voltage 搀䈀嘀......Page 59
Review Questions......Page 60
Answers to Review Questions......Page 61
4.3 Synchronization......Page 63
4.5 Deadtime......Page 64
4.6 Summary of the Basic Radar Principle......Page 65
4.8 Radar Detection Range......Page 66
4.10 The Isotopic Source Reference......Page 67
4.14 Receiver Sensitivity 倀开爀 min......Page 69
4.15 Radar Maximum Range......Page 71
4.16 12 dB per Octave Curves......Page 72
4.17 Other Methods for Ground Clutter Reduction......Page 73
4.19 CHIRP......Page 74
4.19 Diplexed Transmitters......Page 75
4.22 More Forms of CHIRP......Page 77
Review Questions......Page 79
Answers to Review Questions......Page 80
5.1 Synthesis System Block Diagram......Page 82
5.2 Stalo-Coho-Transmitter Phase Relationships......Page 83
5.5 The mti Canceler......Page 84
5.7 Coherence......Page 85
5.8 Automatic Frequency Control 愀昀挀......Page 86
5.10 Component Size versus the Applied Voltage......Page 87
5.14 Radar Type Designations......Page 88
5.15 New Band Designation......Page 89
Review Questions......Page 90
Answers to Review Questions......Page 91
6.3 Data Processing......Page 92
6.4 The Coherent Oscillator 䌀漀栀漀......Page 93
6.10.1 Danger!......Page 94
6.13 The Filament Power Supply......Page 95
6.16 The Switch......Page 97
6.18 The Power Klystron Tube......Page 98
6.21 The Four-Port Circulator......Page 99
6.23 The Waveguide Switch......Page 100
6.24 The Antenna......Page 101
6.27 Newer 16,384-ACP Generators......Page 102
6.30 The Basic Principle of Circular Polarization......Page 103
6.32 The T-R Device......Page 104
6.33 The stc Module......Page 105
6.36 The Low-Noise Amplifier 氀渀愀......Page 106
6.39 The Stalo......Page 107
6.41 The Normal i-f Amplifier......Page 108
6.43 The Logarithmic i-f Amplifier......Page 109
6.44 The mti i-f......Page 110
6.46 The mti Analog-to-Digital 䄀⼀䐀 Converter......Page 112
6.48 The Enhancer......Page 113
6.50 Differentiating ftc......Page 114
6.52 Constant False Alarm Rate 䌀䘀䄀刀......Page 115
6.54 The Destagger Circuitry......Page 116
6.56 The Digital-to-Analog Converters......Page 117
6.58 The Digitizer......Page 118
Review Questions......Page 121
Answers to Review Questions......Page 123
7.4 Dangers in Excessive Reliance......Page 125
7.5.4 The Fourth Generation......Page 126
7.5.7 Data Processing at an ARTCC......Page 128
7.5.8 Data Utilization and Processing......Page 129
7.6.1 Basic ATCRBS Interrogator Principle......Page 130
7.7.1 Challenge/Interrogation Modes......Page 132
7.7.4 Mode 4 Challenge......Page 133
7.8.3 Transmitter......Page 134
7.8.7 Uplink P6 Contents......Page 136
7.8.12 Interlace Pattern Determined by Antenna Rotation Rate......Page 137
7.9.2 Original A-B Code Train......Page 138
7.9.4 Octal Numbering......Page 139
7.9.8 Adjusting for Barometric Pressure......Page 140
7.10.2 Radar Mile Remains 12.3552 µs......Page 141
7.10.5 Measuring "Reinforcement Rate"......Page 142
7.10.6 The Interrogator Transmitter and Antenna System......Page 143
7.10.7 Side-Lobe Suppression 匀䰀匀 and Improved Side-Lobe Suppression 䤀匀䰀匀......Page 144
7.10.10 ATCBI-3 Hardware Transmitter Block Diagram......Page 145
7.10.12 STC/GTC......Page 147
7.10.13 Code Train Data Processing......Page 148
7.10.15 Non-Common Decoders......Page 149
7.11.2 Delay Lines Replaced by Shift Registers......Page 150
7.11.3 Multiple Code Extractors......Page 151
7.11.5 More about the Beacon Azimuth Sliding Window......Page 152
7.11.8 Interaction between Code Trains......Page 153
7.11.10 Range Ambiguities 匀攀挀漀渀搀ⴀ吀椀洀攀 刀攀瀀氀椀攀猀......Page 154
7.12.4 Sliding-Window Detection......Page 155
7.12.6 Monopulse Transponder Detection......Page 156
7.13.1 Phasing the Dipoles 漀爀 匀氀漀琀猀......Page 157
7.13.3 Fire-Control Secondary Radar......Page 158
7.13.5 FAA Monopulse Antennas......Page 159
7.14.2 Receiver Side-Lobe Suppression......Page 161
7.14.5 Phase Detector......Page 162
7.14.8 Multiple Facilities and Coordination......Page 163
Review Questions......Page 168
Answers to Review Questions......Page 169
8.1.3 Need to Know......Page 170
8.2.3 First Discoveries......Page 171
8.3.1 Advantages of Waveguides......Page 172
8.4.1 Waveguide as Compared to a Two-Wire rf Line......Page 173
8.4.2 Effect of Different Frequencies on a Waveguide......Page 174
8.4.4 The Electric Field......Page 175
8.4.5 The Magnetic Field......Page 176
8.5 Waveguide Propagation by Electric Waves......Page 178
8.5.2 The Wavefront Crossing Angle......Page 180
8.5.6 Counting Wavelengths for Measuring Modes......Page 182
8.6.1 Excitation with Electric Fields......Page 183
8.6.2 Excitation with a Magnetic Field......Page 184
8.7.1 Bends......Page 185
8.7.3 Joints......Page 186
8.7.4 Rotary Joints......Page 187
8.7.6 The ATR Switch......Page 188
8.7.8 Terminating a Waveguide......Page 190
8.8 Cavity Resonators......Page 191
8.8.1 The Fields in a Cavity......Page 192
8.8.3 Tuning the Cavity......Page 193
8.8.4 Uses of Cavities......Page 194
8.9.1 The Early Frequency Meter......Page 197
8.9.3 The Directional Coupler......Page 198
Review Questions......Page 202
Answers to Review Questions......Page 203
9.2 The Master Trigger Blocking Oscillator......Page 204
9.5 The Circulating Trigger Loop......Page 205
9.7 Analog-to-Digital Conversion of the Bipolar Video......Page 206
9.9 Range-Cell Clock Rate......Page 207
9.12 Range Cells versus Shift Register Stages......Page 208
9.15 Ŀ_p Adjustment......Page 209
9.18.1 Preface and Introduction......Page 210
9.18.3 The Coherent Processing Interval Pair 䌀倀䤀倀......Page 211
9.19.2 Program Counter......Page 212
9.19.9 Status Registers......Page 213
9.20.2 The MTD Front End......Page 214
9.20.5 Calculation and Example of ASR-9 Average Ŀ_p......Page 215
9.20.6 Synchronizers in Redundant Radar Channels......Page 216
9.20.7 Interference between Channels......Page 217
Review Questions......Page 218
Answers to Review Questions......Page 219
10.2 Compressed High-Resolution Pulse 䌀䠀䤀刀倀 Transmitters......Page 221
10.6 Modulation Creates Harmonics......Page 222
10.9 Pulse Modulation......Page 223
10.11 The sin x/x Amplitude Wave......Page 224
10.12 Calculation of the Harmonic Resultant at Pulse Center......Page 225
10.13 Calculation of the Amplitude of a Single Harmonic......Page 226
10.16 The Actual Transmitter Spectrum......Page 227
10.17 The Spectrum Analyzer......Page 228
10.19 The i-f Amplifier and Resolution Bandwidth......Page 229
10.21 The Display......Page 231
10.24 Fourier Transforms......Page 232
10.25.3 The Electron Gun......Page 233
10.25.4 The Input Cavity......Page 234
10.25.8 Drive Power......Page 235
10.25.11 The Ion Pump......Page 236
10.26 Caution......Page 237
10.26.3 Out-of-Band Filters......Page 239
10.27.4 The "Bottle" Analogy......Page 240
10.27.8 Magnetic Fields......Page 242
10.27.10 Formation of Synchronous Electron Clouds......Page 245
10.27.13 Performance Characteristics......Page 247
10.27.14 The Amplitron, aka Crossed-Field Amplifier......Page 248
10.28 The Modulator......Page 249
10.28.2 Fundamental Pulse Modulator Principle......Page 250
10.28.4 Interlocks......Page 251
10.28.9 The Modulator Driver......Page 252
10.29.1 Real Transmission Lines......Page 253
10.29.3 Signal Propagation on a Transmission Line......Page 254
10.29.5 Frequencies above Ŀ_x and Reactance......Page 255
10.29.7 Charging the Line Capacitance......Page 256
10.29.8 Termination R_L......Page 257
10.29.10 Wave Computations......Page 258
10.29.11 Discharging the Line......Page 259
10.29.13 Pulse Shape......Page 260
10.29.17 Inductive Charging......Page 261
10.29.18 Other Modulator Types......Page 262
References......Page 263
Review Questions......Page 264
Review Answers......Page 266
11.3 Bandwidth Requirement of the Receiver......Page 270
11.6 Noise Figure......Page 271
11.8 Signal-to-Noise Ratio Degradation......Page 272
11.9 Overall Noise Figure F_t......Page 273
11.11 Effective Noise Temperature......Page 274
11.13 Antenna Noise and Solar Strobes......Page 275
11.16 Double Conversion......Page 276
11.18 Phase Detection......Page 277
11.20 The First Detector/Signal Mixer......Page 278
11.22 The Double-Balanced Mixer......Page 279
11.25 The Local Oscillator......Page 280
11.26 The Swept-Bandpass afc......Page 281
11.28 Search Operation......Page 282
11.31 Discriminator-Type afc......Page 283
11.33 The Normal i-f Amplifier......Page 284
11.38 The Logarithmic i-f Amplifier......Page 285
11.40 The MTI i-f Amplifier......Page 286
11.42 Adjustments......Page 287
11.44 The MTD i-f Amplifier 䄀匀刀ⴀ㤀......Page 288
11.46 Gain and Bandpass Testing......Page 289
11.48 General Rules......Page 293
11.49 Gain Testing......Page 294
Review Questions......Page 295
Answers to Review Questions......Page 297
12.4 Upward Doppler Shift......Page 301
12.8 Radial Velocity......Page 302
12.11 Bidirectional Wave Travel and Speed of Light......Page 303
12.15 The Doppler Effect and Phase Detection......Page 304
12.16 First and Second Phase Detectors......Page 305
12.19 The Phase-Detector Operation......Page 306
12.20 Comparing Different Frequencies in a Synchronous Phase Detector......Page 307
12.21 Doppler Shift Representation at the Phase-Detector Output......Page 309
12.22.1 The Echo-Marking Approach......Page 310
12.22.3 Synthesis System Block Diagram, Incorporating the MTI Principle......Page 311
12.22.5 The Difference between Radar Doppler and T_r-to-T_r Echo Phase Change......Page 312
12.22.8 Blind Velocity Calculation......Page 313
12.22.9 Blind Velocity and Staggered Ŀ_p......Page 314
12.22.12 Quadrature Phase Detectors......Page 315
12.22.15 Improvement to the Velocity Response Shape......Page 316
12.22.17 Bipolar and Unipolar Velocity Response Shapes......Page 318
12.22.18 Sweeping the Canceler with Audio......Page 319
12.22.23 T_r-T_r Radial Target Movement......Page 321
12.23 The Magnetron MTI System......Page 322
12.23.1 Achieving Coherence......Page 323
12.23.2 Summary of Magnetron Coherence......Page 324
12.23.3 Magnetron System Maintenance Techniques......Page 325
12.23.4 The Locked Test Pulse Generator......Page 326
12.23.6 The Composite Video Test Target Generator......Page 327
12.23.8 Output Limiting......Page 328
12.24.1 Simultaneous Multiple Dopplers......Page 329
12.24.3 Echo Phase "Pulling," Competition, and Resultant......Page 330
12.24.4 Those Phase-Detector Outputs Variable with Signal Power......Page 331
12.24.6 Payoff Adjustment Procedure......Page 332
12.24.7 Maximum i-f Gain......Page 333
12.24.10 Echo Box SCV Procedure......Page 334
12.25.2 Echo-Box Cancellation Ratio......Page 336
12.25.5 i-f Cancellation Ratio......Page 337
12.25.6 Causes of Cancellation Failures......Page 338
12.26.3 Range Ambiguities, Magnetron versus Synthesis......Page 339
12.26.5 Staggered Ŀ_ps and Canceler Velocity Response......Page 340
12.27.3 Four-Pulse Canceler......Page 341
Review Questions......Page 344
Answers to Review Questions......Page 346
13.3.3 The Ramp Generator......Page 349
13.3.4 The Quantizers......Page 350
13.4.3 Hardwired Right and Left Shifting......Page 353
13.4.7 The One-T_r Data-Delay Path......Page 354
13.4.10 Canceler 1 to Canceler 2......Page 356
13.4.11 Feedback Modes......Page 357
13.4.12 The Register and Bipolar-to-Unipolar Converter......Page 358
13.4.14 Canceler Testing and Troubleshooting......Page 359
13.5.2 Logarithmic Scaler and ftc Circuit......Page 360
13.5.4 ftc Operation......Page 361
13.5.6 The Normalization and Antilog Circuitry......Page 363
13.5.7 The Enhancer......Page 366
Review Questions......Page 367
Answers to Review Questions......Page 368
14.3 General Description......Page 370
14.4 The Original Analog Range-Gated Doppler Filters......Page 371
14.5.1 Timing Scheme......Page 372
14.5.3 The Analog-to-Digital Converter......Page 373
14.5.6 The Target and Two-Level Detector......Page 375
14.5.7 The Postprocessor......Page 376
14.5.9 The Input Data Buffer......Page 378
14.5.10 The General Math Unit......Page 379
14.5.11 The Filter Arithmetic Units......Page 380
14.5.12 The Accumulated Product......Page 382
14.5.13 The Filter Data Message......Page 383
14.6.1 The Mean-Level Threshold 䴀䰀吀 Cards......Page 384
14.6.2 Improved Detection in Weather......Page 385
14.6.3 Primitive Detector Number 1 倀䐀㄀......Page 386
14.6.6 The Geocensor Map......Page 388
14.6.8 The C&I Formatter Card......Page 391
14.6.10 The F1 Control Card......Page 392
14.6.12 The Characteristics of Weather Echoes......Page 393
14.7.1 Primary Radar Data Inputs......Page 394
14.7.4 Centroiding......Page 396
14.7.7 The Second Adaptive Threshold Map......Page 397
14.7.10 Second Adaptive Map Maintenance Display......Page 398
14.7.12 Appearance of the MTI Reflector......Page 400
14.7.13 Azimuth Alignment......Page 401
14.7.15 Two-Level Weather Smoothing and Contouring......Page 402
14.7.16 The Message Interface......Page 403
Review Questions......Page 404
Answers to Review Questions......Page 405
15.3 Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Deflection......Page 407
15.6 The A-Type Display......Page 408
15.9 The B-Type Display......Page 409
15.11 The E-Type Display......Page 410
15.14 Variations of Type P Displays......Page 411
15.16.2 Radar Television Displays......Page 412
15.16.3 Radar Bright Display Equipment 刀䈀䐀䔀......Page 413
15.17.2 Synthetic Real-Time ppi Displays......Page 414
15.18.1 General......Page 415
15.18.4 The Phosphor猀......Page 417
15.18.6 The Focus and Deflection Coils......Page 418
15.18.8 The Phantastron......Page 419
15.18.11 Timing......Page 420
15.18.12 Overscan Limit......Page 421
15.18.14 The Video Amplifier......Page 422
15.18.16 Basic Synchro System......Page 423
15.18.17 Increasing Torque......Page 424
15.18.18 Hybrid Systems......Page 425
15.18.19 The Trigonometric Identity, sin^2theta + cos^2theta = 1......Page 426
15.18.20 Fixed-Coil Deflection......Page 427
15.18.21 Creating the sin-cos Modulation......Page 428
15.18.22 Digital Azimuth Data......Page 429
15.18.25 "Accelerating" Real Time......Page 430
15.18.26 Other Uses of the Azimuth Counter......Page 432
15.18.28 Azimuth Alignment......Page 434
15.19.1 Range Resolution......Page 435
15.19.7 Display Circularity......Page 436
15.20 The Video "Mapper"......Page 438
15.20.1 Alignment......Page 439
15.21.1 Conventional Sine and Cosine Azimuth Data......Page 440
15.21.2 Octants, Tangents, and Cotangents......Page 441
15.21.6 Trails......Page 443
15.22.2 SCIP Block Diagram......Page 444
15.22.4 Weather Data......Page 447
Review Questions......Page 448
Answers to Review Questions......Page 449
Appendix A: Annotated Glossary......Page 451