Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Preface
Featured in this Book
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
Learning Objectives
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids
1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units
1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior
1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
1.4.1 Density
1.4.2 Specific Weight
1.4.3 Specific Gravity
1.5 Ideal Gas Law
1.6 Viscosity
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.1 Bulk Modulus
1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases
1.7.3 Speed of Sound
1.8 Vapor Pressure
1.9 Surface Tension
1.10 A Brief Look Back in History
1.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
2 Fluid Statics
Learning Objectives
2.1 Pressure at a Point
2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field
2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid
2.3.2 Compressible Fluid
2.4 Standard Atmosphere
2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2.6 Manometry
2.6.1 Piezometer Tube
2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer
2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer
2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices
2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
2.9 Pressure Prism
2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability
2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle
2.11.2 Stability
2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
2.12.1 Linear Motion
2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation
2.13 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation
Learning Objectives
3.1 Newton’s Second Law
3.2 F = ma along a Streamline
3.3 F = ma Normal to a Streamline
3.4 Physical Interpretation
3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure
3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation
3.6.1 Free Jets
3.6.2 Confined Flows
3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement
3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation
3.8.1 Compressibility Effects
3.8.2 Unsteady Effects
3.8.3 Rotational Effects
3.8.4 Other Restrictions
3.9 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
4 Fluid Kinematics
Learning Objectives
4.1 The Velocity Field
4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions
4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows
4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines
4.2 The Acceleration Field
4.2.1 The Material Derivative
4.2.2 Unsteady Effects
4.2.3 Convective Effects
4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates
4.3 Control Volume and System Representations
4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
4.4.2 Physical Interpretation
4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative
4.4.4 Steady Effects
4.4.5 Unsteady Effects
4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes
4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume
4.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
5 Finite Control Volume Analysis
Learning Objectives
5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation
5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation
5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume
5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume
5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume
5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations
5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation
5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation
5.3.3 Comparison of the Energy Equation with the Bernoulli Equation
5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows
5.3.5 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics—Irreversible Flow
5.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow
Learning Objectives
6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics
6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited
6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation
6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation
6.2 Conservation of Mass
6.2.1 Differential Form of Continuity Equation
6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
6.2.3 The Stream Function
6.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum
6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element
6.3.2 Equations of Motion
6.4 Inviscid Flow
6.4.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion
6.4.2 The Bernoulli Equation
6.4.3 Irrotational Flow
6.4.4 The Bernoulli Equation for Irrotational Flow
6.4.5 The Velocity Potential
6.5 Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows
6.5.1 Uniform Flow
6.5.2 Source and Sink
6.5.3 Vortex
6.5.4 Doublet
6.6 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows
6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body
6.6.2 Rankine Ovals
6.6.3 Flow around a Circular Cylinder
6.7 Other Aspects of Potential Flow Analysis
6.8 Viscous Flow
6.8.1 Stress-Deformation Relationships
6.8.2 The Navier–Stokes Equations
6.9 Some Simple Solutions for Viscous, Incompressible Fluids
6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow between Fixed Parallel Plates
6.9.2 Couette Flow
6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus
6.10 Other Aspects of Differential Analysis
6.10.1 Numerical Methods
6.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
7 Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling
Learning Objectives
7.1 Dimensional Analysis
7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem
7.3 Determination of Pi Terms
7.4 Some Additional Comments about Dimensional Analysis
7.4.1 Selection of Variables
7.4.2 Determination of Reference Dimensions
7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms
7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection
7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data
7.7.1 Problems with One Pi Term
7.7.2 Problems with Two or More Pi Terms
7.8 Modeling and Similitude
7.8.1 Theory of Models
7.8.2 Model Scales
7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models
7.9 Some Typical Model Studies
7.9.1 Flow through Closed Conduits
7.9.2 Flow around Immersed Bodies
7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface
7.10 Similitude Based on Governing Differential Equations
7.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
8 Viscous Flow in Pipes
Learning Objectives
8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow
8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow
8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress
8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow
8.2.1 From F = ma Applied Directly to a Fluid Element
8.2.2 From the Navier–Stokes Equations
8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis
8.2.4 Energy Considerations
8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress
8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile
8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling
8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence
8.4 Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow
8.4.1 Major Losses
8.4.2 Minor Losses
8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits
8.5 Pipe Flow Examples
8.5.1 Single Pipes
8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems
8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement
8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters
8.6.2 Volume Flowmeters
8.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies
Learning Objectives
9.1 General External Flow Characteristics
9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts
9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object
9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics
9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate
9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution
9.2.3 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat Plate
9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient
9.2.7 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient
9.3 Drag
9.3.1 Friction Drag
9.3.2 Pressure Drag
9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and Examples
9.4 Lift
9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution
9.4.2 Circulation
9.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
10 Open-Channel Flow
Learning Objectives
10.1 General Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow
10.2 Surface Waves
10.2.1 Wave Speed
10.2.2 Froude Number Effects
10.3 Energy Considerations
10.3.1 Specific Energy
10.3.2 Channel Depth Variations
10.4 Uniform Depth Channel Flow
10.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations
10.4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations
10.4.3 Uniform Depth Examples
10.5 Gradually Varied Flow
10.6 Rapidly Varied Flow
10.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump
10.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs
10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs
10.6.4 Underflow Gates
10.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
11 Compressible Flow
Learning Objectives
11.1 Ideal Gas Relationships
11.2 Mach Number and Speed of Sound
11.3 Categories of Compressible Flow
11.4 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
11.4.1 Effect of Variations in Flow Cross-Sectional Area
11.4.2 Converging–Diverging Duct Flow
11.4.3 Constant Area Duct Flow
11.5 Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
11.5.1 Adiabatic Constant Area Duct Flow with Friction (Fanno Flow)
11.5.2 Frictionless Constant Area Duct Flow with Heat Transfer (Rayleigh Flow)
11.5.3 Normal Shock Waves
11.6 Analogy between Compressible and Open-Channel Flows
11.7 Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow
11.8 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
12 Turbomachines
Learning Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Basic Energy Considerations
12.3 Basic Angular Momentum Considerations
12.4 The Centrifugal Pump
12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations
12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics
12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
12.4.4 System Characteristics and Pump Selection
12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and Similarity Laws
12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws
12.5.2 Specific Speed
12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed
12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow Pumps
12.7 Fans
12.8 Turbines
12.8.1 Impulse Turbines
12.8.2 Reaction Turbines
12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines
12.9.1 Compressors
12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines
12.10 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Review Problems
Conceptual Questions
Problems
APPENDICES
A: Computational Fluid Dynamics
B: Physical Properties of Fluids
C: Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere
D: Compressible Flow Graphs for an Ideal Gas (k =1.4)
ANSWERS to Selected Even-Numbered Homework Problems
ch01
ch02
ch03-04
ch05
ch06
ch07-08
ch09-10
ch11-12
INDEX
A
B
C
D
E
F
G-H
I
J-K-L-M
N
O
P
Q-R-S
T
U-V
W-Z
Video Index (with WEB link)
Useful Reference Pages
Physical Properties of Common Liquids
Physical Properties of Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Conversion Factors
Conversion Factors