Fundamentals and Advances in Medical Biotechnology

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Chapter 1: The Advent of Medical Biotechnology
1.1 Definition and Historical Resume
1.1.1 Definition of Medical Biotechnology and its Evolution
1.1.2 History of Medical Biotechnology
1.1.3 Earliest Applications in Disease Detection
1.1.3.1 Gram Staining
1.1.3.2 Haematological Staining and Magic Bullet by Paul Ehrlich
1.1.3.3 Karyotyping
1.2 Pioneers of the Field
1.2.1 “Re-visiting the History of Vaccination”: The Story of Edward Jenner and His Predecessors
1.2.1.1 Origin of Smallpox and Introduction of Variolation
Edward Jenner
Louis Pasteur
Chicken Cholera Vaccine
Anthrax Vaccine
Paul Ehrlich: A Biochemist Ahead of His Time
1.3 Importance of the Field
1.3.1 Most Recent Advances and Their Importance (Fig. 1.1)
1.3.1.1 Robotics-Operated Surgeries
1.3.1.2 Stem Cell Research
1.3.1.3 Human Genome Project
1.3.1.4 Targeted Cancer Therapies
1.3.1.5 Three-Dimensional (3D) Visualization and Augmented Reality for Surgery
1.3.1.6 HPV Vaccine
1.3.1.7 Face Transplants
1.3.1.8 CRISPR
1.3.1.9 Three-Dimensional (3D) Printed Organs
1.3.1.10 Nerve Regeneration
1.3.1.11 Brain Signals to Audible Speech
1.3.2 Invention of PCR
1.3.3 Production of Synthetic Insulin
1.4 Sub-Disciplines: Allied Fields, Inter-Relationships with Other Fields
References
Chapter 2: Biotechnology in Medicine: Fundamentals
2.1 Introduction, Importance of Biotechnology in Everyday Life, Utilization of Biotechnology for Human Welfare
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Importance of Biotechnology in Everyday Life
2.1.3 Utilization of Biotechnology for Human Welfare
2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction, Essential Components of Polymerase Chain Reaction, Modifications of PCR, Applications of PCR
2.2.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction
2.2.2 Essential Components of Polymerase Chain Reaction
2.2.3 Modifications of PCR
2.2.4 Applications of PCR
2.3 Restriction Enzymes: Types and Mechanism of Action
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Nomenclature
2.3.3 Types of Restriction Endonucleases
2.3.4 Isoschizomers and Neoschizomers
2.3.5 CRISPR-Cas9: A Novel Tool in the DNA Editing Toolbox
2.4 Cloning: Introduction, Cloning Vectors, Cloning of PCR Products
2.4.1 Over-View of Cloning
2.4.1.1 Enzymes Involved in Cloning Procedure
2.4.1.2 Molecular Accessories Required to Facilitate Cloning
2.4.2 Cloning Vector
2.4.2.1 Criteria of a Good Cloning Vector
2.4.2.2 Plasmids
2.4.2.3 Bacteriophages
2.4.2.4 Cosmids
2.4.2.5 Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BAC)
2.4.2.6 Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YAC)
2.4.3 Cloning of PCR Products
2.4.3.1 Ligation Dependent Cloning
2.4.3.2 Ligation-Independent Cloning
2.4.3.3 Gateway Cloning
2.5 Introduction to Bacterial Transformation, Different Methods of Transformation, Animal Cell Transfection
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Types of Bacterial Transformations
2.5.2.1 Natural Transformation
2.5.2.2 Artificial Transformation
2.5.3 Work Flow of Bacterial Transformation
2.5.3.1 Competent Cell Preparation
2.5.3.2 Transformation of Cells
2.5.3.3 Cell Recovery
2.5.3.4 Cell Plating
2.5.4 Animal Cell Transfection
2.5.4.1 Chemical
2.5.4.2 Biological
2.5.4.3 Physical
2.6 Real-Time PCR
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Principle of Real-Time PCR
2.6.2.1 DNA-Binding Dyes
2.6.2.2 Probe Based Detection
2.7 Genomic Libraries, cDNA Libraries, and PCR Based Libraries
2.7.1 Genomic Libraries
2.7.1.1 Cloning of DNA Fragments
2.7.2 cDNA Libraries
2.7.2.1 mRNA Can Be Cloned as Complementary DNA
2.7.3 PCR Based Libraries
2.8 Gene Screening: Introduction, Nucleic Acid Hybridization Screening, Immune Screening, Functional Screening, Interaction-Based Screening
2.8.1 Introduction
2.8.2 Screening by Nucleic Acid Hybridization
2.8.2.1 Properties of DNA Probe
2.8.3 Immunoscreening
2.8.4 Screening by Function
2.8.4.1 Screening by Functional Complementation
2.8.5 Screening by Interaction
2.9 Mutagenesis: Introduction, Primer Extension Mutagenesis, PCR Based Mutagenesis, Random Mutagenesis
2.9.1 Introduction
2.9.2 Primer Extension Mutagenesis (The Single-Primer Method)
2.9.3 PCR Methods of Site-Directed Mutagenesis
2.9.4 Random Mutagenesis
2.9.4.1 Doped Cassette Mutagenesis
2.9.4.2 Error-Prone PCR
2.10 Summary
References
Chapter 3: Biotechnology in Medicine: Advances-I
3.1 Genome Sequencing
3.1.1 Human Genome Project (HGP)
3.1.2 Introduction to Manual and Automated Sequencing, Assembly
3.1.2.1 Manual DNA Sequencing
3.1.2.2 Automated Sequencing
3.1.3 Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)
3.1.4 Sequence Comparison Techniques
3.1.5 Genome Annotation Techniques
3.2 Origin of Genomes
3.2.1 Acquisition of New Genes
3.2.2 Origins of Introns
3.2.3 Genetics to Genomics and Genomics to Functional Genomics
3.2.4 Forward and Reverse Genetics
3.3 Phylogeny
3.3.1 COGs (Cluster of Orthologues Genes)
3.3.2 Paralogues Genes and Gene Displacement
3.4 Microarrays: Oligonucleotide Microarray Chips
3.4.1 SAGE (Serial Analysis of Gene Expression) Microarrays
3.4.2 cDNA Microarrays
3.4.3 Cancer and Genomic Microarrays
3.5 Application of Microarrays with Examples
3.5.1 In Cancer
3.5.2 In Antibiotic Treatment
3.5.3 Early Detection of Oral Lesions
3.5.4 Microarray Data Analysis and Interpretation
3.6 Genetic Engineering
3.6.1 Genetic Engineering in Animals: Pronuclear Injection, Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
3.7 Gene Therapy: Introduction
3.7.1 Applications of Gene Therapy with Examples
3.7.1.1 Neurological Disorders
3.7.1.2 Infectious Diseases
3.7.1.3 Cancer
3.7.1.4 Inherited Diseases
References
Chapter 4: Biotechnology in Medicine: Advances-II
4.1 Protein Expression: Introduction to E. coli Expression System, Yeast Expression System, Insect Expression System. Higher-Eukaryotic Expression Systems
4.1.1 Protein Expression
4.1.1.1 Bacterial Expression System
4.1.1.2 Yeast Expression System
4.1.1.3 Insect Cell Expression System
4.1.1.4 Mammalian Expression System
4.2 Protein Purification: Principle of Heterologous Protein Purification following Expression. Use of His Tag, GST-Tag, MBP-Tag, TAP-Tag, Myc-Tag
4.2.1 Protein Purification
4.3 Proteomics: Introduction, Protein Detection Array, Protein Informatics, Domain Analysis, and Structure Prediction
4.3.1 Protein Detection Array
4.3.1.1 Analytical Microarrays
4.3.1.2 Functional Microarray
4.3.1.3 Reverse-Phase Protein Microarrays
4.3.2 Protein Informatics
4.3.3 Domain Analysis
4.3.3.1 Domain Parsing
4.3.4 Structure Prediction
4.4 Expression Sequence Tags (ESTs), Application of Protein Detection Microarray with Examples
4.4.1 Expression Sequence Tags (ESTs)
4.4.2 Application of Protein Detection Microarray
4.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation of Protein Detection Arrays
4.6 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Analytical Techniques in Medical Biotechnology
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Microscopy
5.1.1.1 Background and Types
5.1.2 Applications of Microscopy in Medical Biotechnology
5.2 Spectroscopy
5.2.1 Background and Types
5.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
5.2.3 UV-Visible Spectroscopy
5.2.3.1 Absorption and Intensity Shift in UV-Visible Spectroscopy of Biomolecules
5.2.4 CD Spectroscopy
5.2.5 Applications of Spectroscopy in Medical Biotechnology
5.3 Chromatography
5.3.1 Principle
5.4 Radioisotopes and Their Application in Biological System
5.4.1 Histochemistry, Immunohistochemistry
5.5 Electrophoretic Techniques
5.5.1 Applications of Electrophoresis in Separation of Clinical Samples
5.6 Hybridization
5.6.1 Northern Blotting, Southern Blotting, Western Blotting, and Use of Probes in Blotting
5.7 ELISA
5.8 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Immunology in Medical Biotechnology
6.1 An Overview of Immune System, Types of immunity, Cells and Organs of Immune System
6.1.1 An Overview of Immune System
6.1.2 Types of Immunity
6.1.2.1 Innate Immunity
Anatomical and Physiological Barriers
6.1.2.2 Adaptive Immunity
6.1.3 Cells and Organs of Immune System
6.1.3.1 Organs of the Immune System
6.1.3.2 Cells of Immune System
6.2 Human Immunogenetics, Basic Principles and Clinical Relevance
6.3 Antibody, Structure and Classification
6.3.1 Structure of Antibody
6.3.2 Classification of Antibodies
6.4 Antibody Production and Mechanisms Involved
6.4.1 Antibody Purification
6.5 Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC Complex), Structure and Functions
6.5.1 MHC-I
6.5.2 MHC-II
6.6 Hypersensitivity Reaction
6.6.1 Allergy and Allergens
6.6.2 Role of Immunoglobulin E and Mast Cells in Allergy
6.7 Tumor Immunology
6.7.1 Acquired Immunodeficiency Disorder (AIDS)
6.7.1.1 Infection
6.7.2 Immunodeficiency Disease
6.7.3 Immune Tolerance
6.7.4 Autoimmunity
6.7.5 Transplantation
6.7.6 Graft Rejection
6.7.7 Graft Versus Host Reaction
6.8 Immune Cell Therapy
References
Chapter 7: Epigenetics and Medical Biotechnology
7.1 Introduction to Epigenetics
7.1.1 Epigenetics: Background
7.1.2 History and Definition of Epigenetics
7.1.3 Evolution of the Definition of Epigenetics: Insights from Research Involved
7.1.4 Histones and Nucleosomes
7.1.5 Post-translational Modifications of Histones
7.1.5.1 Histone Methylation
7.1.5.2 Histone Acetylation
7.1.5.3 Histone Phosphorylation
7.1.5.4 Histone Ubiquitination
7.1.6 DNA Modifications
7.2 Epigenome and Diseases
7.2.1 Role of DNA Methylation in Diseases
7.2.2 DNA Methylation and Human Diseases
7.2.3 High-Throughput Methylome Sequencing
7.2.3.1 Bisulphite Sequencing
7.2.4 Role of Methylome Sequencing in Diseases Prognosis and/or Diagnosis
7.2.5 Chromatin Immunoprecipitation
7.2.6 Use of ChIP in Diagnostic and Prognostic Applications
7.3 Chromatin Structure and Genome Organisation
7.3.1 Regulation of 3D Genome Organisation
7.3.2 Non-coding RNAs (ncRNA)
7.3.3 Effect of Non-coding RNAs on Gene Silencing and Genome Organisation
7.3.4 Chromosome Territories, Compartments and Nuclear Lamins in Genome Organisation
7.3.5 Higher Order Genome Organisation and Diseases
References
Chapter 8: Stem Cell Technology in Medical Biotechnology
8.1 Introduction, Classification, and Significance of Stem Cells, Isolation and Identification of Stem Cells, and Differentiation of Stem Cells
8.1.1 Introduction
8.1.2 Isolation of Stem Cells
8.1.3 Isolation of Embryonic Stem Cell (ESC) Lines
8.1.4 Somatic Stem Cells
8.1.5 Culture of Stem Cells
8.1.6 Feeder Cell Layers
8.1.7 Feeder-Free Culture
8.2 Introduction to Stem Cell Technology: Transdifferentiation Potential of Stem Cells, Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells, Factors Involved in Pluripotency
8.2.1 Transdifferentiation
8.2.1.1 Transdifferentiation Techniques and Mechanisms
Transdifferentiation Through Exogenous Transgene Overexpression
Transdifferentiation Through Endogenous Gene Regulation
Endogenous Gene Silencing with CRISPR/Cas9
Endogenous Genes Upregulation by dCas9
Transdifferentiation Through Pharmacological Agents
8.2.2 Pluripotency Factors Involved in Stem Cells
8.3 Stem Cell Technology and Therapy
8.3.1 Applications of Stem Cell Therapy
8.3.2 Research in the Stem Cell Field
8.4 Stem Cell Technology and Infertility: In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer
8.5 Limitations and Ethical Considerations of Stem Cell Technology
8.5.1 Genetic Modification
8.5.2 Bystander Tumor Formation
8.5.3 Immune Responses
8.5.4 Biodistribution
8.5.5 Unwanted (De)differentiation
8.5.6 Purity and Identity
8.6 Organ Culture: Agar Gel, Grid Method, Plasma Clot: Tissue Engineering
8.7 Applications of Organ Culture and Tissue Engineering in Medical Biotechnology
8.8 Summary
References
Chapter 9: Pharmaceutical Biotechnology: The Role of Biotechnology in the Drug Discovery and Development
9.1 Drugs: Definition, Types, Properties, and Classification
9.1.1 The Critical Steps Involved in Drug Discovery
9.2 Drug Metabolism, Efficacy, and Drug Interactions
9.3 Advantages of Sustained Release Technology in Drugs
9.4 Molecular Complexes and Their Stability
9.4.1 Traditional Small Molecule Drug Development
9.4.2 Protein Therapeutics Development
9.5 Evaluation of Toxicity of a Drug, Approval of New Drugs, Clinical Trials, and Post marketing Surveillance (PMS)
9.5.1 The Role of Genomics and Proteomics in Identification of Targets
9.5.2 Proteins as Potential Drug Targets
9.6 Drug Delivery Systems: Introduction and Types, Targeted Drug Delivery, Vehicles for Targeted Drug Delivery
9.6.1 The Role of a Target Product Profile in Drug Discovery Process
9.7 Advantages of Targeted Drug Delivery System
9.8 Genomics in Drug Discovery
9.8.1 The Role of Academic Research in the Drug Target Identification and Validation
9.8.2 Potential Role of Technologies in the Process of Target Identification in Drug Discovery Process
9.8.3 Antibodies vs. Small Molecule Inhibitors as Therapeutic Agents
9.8.4 Example of Antibody Therapeutics
9.8.5 Biomarkers
9.9 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Biotechnology
10.1 Vaccination and Immunization
10.1.1 Live Attenuated Vaccines
10.1.2 Adjuvants
10.2 Recombinant DNA Vector Vaccine
10.2.1 Peptide Vaccine
10.2.2 Subunit Vaccines
10.2.2.1 Viral Subunit Vaccine
10.3 Applications of Recombinant Antibodies, Enzymes, and Hormones in Therapy and Treatment
10.3.1 Recombinant Antibodies
10.3.1.1 Cancer Treatments
10.3.1.2 Inflammation and Airway Diseases
10.3.1.3 Pathogenic Infections and Toxins
10.3.2 Recombinant Enzymes
10.3.3 Recombinant Hormones
10.3.4 Summary
10.4 Heterologous Protein Expression in Diagnostics and Therapeutics
10.4.1 Expression Systems
10.4.2 Heterologous Protein Production in the Yeast Pichia Pastoris (Tables 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5)
10.4.3 Heterologous Protein Production in the Yeast Kluyveromyces lactis
10.5 Utilization of Single Cell Organisms, Plants, and Animals for Production of Therapeutics and Nutraceuticals
10.5.1 Nutraceutical from Microorganims
10.5.2 Nutraceutical from Plants
10.5.3 Nutraceuticals from Animals
10.5.3.1 Live Biotherapeutic Products (LBP)
10.6 Molecular Markers and Their Role in Disease Diagnosis
10.6.1 Introduction
10.6.2 Molecular Markers in Cancer
10.6.2.1 Current Cancer Markers
Molecular Markers in Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma
Molecular Markers in COPD
Molecular Markers of Glioma
10.7 Applications for Probes in Disease Diagnosis of Humans
10.7.1 Synthesis of DNA Probes
10.7.1.1 Isolating DNA Probes
10.7.1.2 Labeling DNA Probes
10.7.2 How Are DNA Probes Detected?
10.7.2.1 Applications of DNA Probes
References
Chapter 11: Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine
11.1 Origin of the Field, Everyday Applications of Nanotechnology: Nanoparticles in Food Packaging, Textiles, Cosmetics, and Disinfectants
11.1.1 Nanoparticles in Food Packaging
11.1.2 Nanoparticles in Textiles
11.1.3 Nanoparticles in Cosmetics
11.2 Nanomaterials as Drug Delivery Systems
11.2.1 Different Types of NP Classes
11.2.2 Translocation Across Biological Barriers
11.2.3 Cellular Heterogeneity
11.2.4 NPs in Precision Medicine
11.2.5 NPs Are Adaptive to Tumor Microenvironment and Therapy for Cancer
11.2.6 NPs for Immunotherapy
11.2.6.1 Immune Activation
11.2.6.2 Immune Suppression
11.2.6.3 NPs for Genome Editing
11.3 Nanomedicine in Cancer Therapy and Surgery
11.3.1 Cancer Nanomedicine and Image-Guided Surgery
11.3.2 Contribution of Nanotechnology in Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
11.3.3 Photoimmunotherapy
11.3.3.1 Conclusion and Future Directions
11.4 Nanorobots
11.5 Bioactive Nanomaterial in Bone Grafting and Tissue Engineering
11.5.1 Biomaterials Used in Bone Repair
11.5.2 Hydrogels
11.5.3 Naturally Derived Hydrogels
11.6 Emerging Applications: Nanotechnology and Electronics, Nanotechnology and Industry, Nanotechnology and Environment, Nanotechnology and Warfare
11.6.1 Nanotechnology and Electronics
11.6.1.1 Devices Made of Nanoelectronics
11.6.2 Nanotechnology and Warfare
11.6.3 Nanotechnology and Industry, Nanotechnology and Environment
11.7 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Laboratory Protocols in Medical Biotechnology I
12.1 Importance of Observing Healthy Lab Practices. Role of Gloves, Eyewear, and Lab Coats, 70% Ethanol
12.1.1 Defend Your Hand Skin
12.1.2 Avoid Stains
12.1.3 Suspension of the Detrimental Effect
12.1.4 Use Appropriate Gloves According to Specific Applications
12.1.5 Eye Wear
12.1.6 Lab Coats
12.1.7 70% Ethanol Solution
12.2 Role of Biosafety Cabinets. Meaning of Biosafety Level (BSL), Difference Between BSL2 and BSL3 Laboratories
12.3 Laboratory Hazards: Health and Safety Regulations (COSHH-Control of Substances Hazardous to Health)
12.4 Importance of Preparing Stock and Working Solutions, Concentration Terms and Calculations. Preparation of Stock Solutions of Reagents and Buffers
12.4.1 Preparation of working solutions from stock solutions
12.4.2 Importance of preparing stock and working solutions
12.5 Advantages of preparing stock solutions
12.6 Extraction of DNA from Bacterial Cell, Blood, and Liver Tissue (Fig. 12.1)
12.6.1 Cell Lysis and Protein Digestion
12.6.2 Purification of DNA Via Phenol–Chloroform Extraction
12.6.3 Ethanol Precipitation of DNA
12.7 Extraction of Plasmid from Bacteria (Fig. 12.2)
12.8 Extraction of RNA from Blood and Liver Tissue (Fig. 12.3)
12.8.1 Solutions Required for Extraction of RNA
12.8.2 Solutions Needed for Analysis of RNA
12.8.3 RNA Isolation from Blood
12.8.4 RNA Isolation from Liver Tissue
12.9 Estimation of DNA Using Diphenyl Amine (DPA) Method (Fig. 12.5)
12.10 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis of Extracted DNA and RNA (Fig. 12.6)
12.11 Extraction of Proteins from Bacterial Cell and Animal Tissue
12.11.1 TCA (Trichloroacetic Acid) Protein Extraction Method
12.11.2 RIPA Protein Extraction Method
12.12 Estimation of Protein Using Bradford Method and Use of BSA as a Standard
12.12.1 Principle
12.12.2 Procedure
12.13 SDS-PAGE and Western Blotting of Extracted Proteins (Fig. 12.7)
12.13.1 Day 1
12.13.2 Day 2
12.13.3 Histopathological Studies: Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) Staining
12.13.4 Histopathological Studies: Masson Trichrome (MT) Staining
12.13.5 Immunohistochemistry
References
Chapter 13: Laboratory Protocols in Medical Biotechnology II (Contemporary Principles and Practices of Bacterial and Human Cell Culture)
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Basic Principles of Microbial Cell Culture
13.2.1 Importance of Cell Cultures and Requirements
13.2.2 Growth Curves
13.3 How to Culture Bacterial Cells
13.3.1 Isolation of Pure Cultures
13.3.2 Determination of Growth Curve of E. coli by Spectrophotometer
13.3.3 Antibiotic Sensitivity Test of Microbes by Antibiotic Doses
13.4 How to Culture Yeast Cells
13.4.1 Yeast Growth Phase
13.5 Human Cell Culture
13.5.1 Adherent and Nonadherent Cells
13.5.2 Culture Media
13.5.3 Composition and Importance for Cell Growth
13.5.4 Feeder Layer
13.6 Biological Contamination
13.6.1 Major Contaminants in Cell Culture
13.6.2 Sources of Biological Contaminants in the Lab
13.6.3 Measures to Contain Contamination
13.7 Significance of Making Aliquots of Reagents
13.7.1 Shelf Life of Reagents
13.7.2 Effect of Freeze–Thaw on Shelf Life
13.8 Statistics in Data Handling and Interpretation
13.8.1 Mean
13.8.2 Standard Deviation
13.8.3 Standard Error
13.9 Use of Excel Spreadsheet in Data Handling
13.9.1 Pie Chart
13.9.2 The Bar Chart
13.9.3 Line Chart
13.9.4 Scatter Chart
13.10 Skills of Data Collection, Recording, and Report Writing
13.11 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Ethics and Medical Biotechnology
14.1 Biotechnology and Society: Introduction to Model Systems, Use of Animal Models for Human Diseases. Recombinant DNA Technology
14.2 Biotechnology and Human Welfare: Introduction of Transgenics, Creation of Genetically Engineered Organisms, Biosafety, Biowar, Biopiracy, and Human Cloning
14.2.1 Misuse and Dual-Use Problem
14.3 Bioethics, Ethics of Genetically Engineered Crops and Animals. Public Concerns and Controversies Associated with Biotechnology
14.4 Ethical Considerations of Genetic Testing in Humans
14.5 Intellectual Proprietary Rights (IPR) and Patenting. Statutory and Legal Obligations of Biomedical R&D Organizations
14.5.1 Regulations in India
14.6 Examples of Revolutionary Breakthroughs in Biotechnology: Insight into the Technologies Involved
14.7 Summary
References
Chapter 15: Careers and Opportunities in Medical Biotechnology
15.1 Introduction to Bio-Industry and Bio-Economy, Economics of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Bioindustry
15.2 Recent Achievements and Advances in Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
15.3 Promising Areas of Research in Medical Biotechnology
15.4 Major Global Biotechnology Companies, Self-Employment Avenues in Biotechnology
15.5 Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology in the USA: Industrial and Research Avenues
15.6 Private–Public Initiatives in Biomedical Sciences, Biotechnology Parks
15.7 Summary
References
Index