Functional Neuroradiology: Principles and Clinical Applications

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging: Physical Principles
1: Physical Principles of Diffusion Imaging
Introduction
Brownian Motion and Molecular Diffusion
Diffusion Encoding and the Stejskal-Tanner Equation
Diffusion Anisotropy
Calculating the ADC
Isotropic DWI and Trace ADC
DWI of the Normal Brain
Current DWI Techniques
Conclusion
References
2: Physical Principles of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced and Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast MRI
Introduction
T1-Weighted Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI
DCE-MRI Acquisition
DCE-MRI Data Analysis
DCE Pharmacokinetic Modeling
Standardization Efforts and Variability of DCE-MRI
T2/T2*-Weighted Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast MRI
DSC-MRI Acquisition
DSC-MRI Data Analysis
Arterial Input Function
Absolute Quantification
Leakage Effects of GBCAs
Standardization Efforts and Variability of DSC-MRI
Conclusion
References
3: Physical Principles of Non-gadolinium Perfusion Technique (Arterial Spin Labeling)
Introduction
Methodology
Spin Preparation Schemes
PASL
CASL
PCASL
VS-ASL
Imaging Acquisition Schemes
CBF Quantification
Other ASL Considerations
Crusher Gradients
Post-Labeling Delay Time
Higher Field Strength Magnets
Coils
Post-Processing Filters
Vascular Territory Mapping
Conclusions
References
Part II: Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging: Clinical Applications
4: Clinical Applications of Diffusion
Introduction
Basic Mechanisms Underlying Diffusion Changes in Pathologic States
Basic Principles of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging Map Interpretation
Diffusion-Weighted Imaging of Ischemic Arterial Infarcts
Diffusion Characteristics of Ischemic Lesions at Different Stages
Reliability and Pitfalls of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging in Identification of Acute Ischemic Lesions
Reversibility of DWI Positive Lesions in Ischemic Stroke and the Use of DWI for Determination of Infarct Core
Use of DWI for Predicting Hemorrhagic Transformation of Ischemic Infarcts
Correlation of DWI Lesion Volume with Clinical Outcome
Thrombolysis/Thrombectomy and DWI/FLAIR and DWI/T2W Mismatch
Lesion Segmentation and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Stroke
Transient Ischemic Attacks
Venous Infarctions and Other Vascular Vasogenic Edema Syndromes
Venous Infarctions
Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome (PRES)
Hyperperfusion Syndrome Following Carotid Endarterectomy
Transient Global Amnesia
Hemiplegic Migraine
SEIZURES
Metabolic, Toxic, and Drug-Induced Encephalopathies
Hypoglycemia
Heroin Inhalation Leukoencephalopathy (HIL)
Metronidazole-Induced Encephalopathy
Methotrexate-Induced Leukoencephalopathy
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Osmotic Myelinolysis Syndromes
Other Syndromes Associated with Alcoholism
Other Drugs and Metabolic Conditions Associated with Restricted Diffusion
Inflammatory Demyelinating Lesions
Cerebral Infections
Abscesses
Meningitis
Encephalitis
Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease
Cerebral Neoplasms
Tumor Grading, Gliomas, and Intracranial Metastases
Evaluation of Treatment Response and Distinguishing Pseudoresponse and Pseudoprogression
Lymphoma
Extra-Axial Masses
Traumatic Brain Injury
Head and Neck Applications
Characterization of Benign Versus Malignant Head and Neck Lesions
Prediction and Monitoring of Treatment Response
Other Head and Neck Applications
Spine Applications
Conclusion: Future Applications of Diffusion Imaging in the Brain
References
5: Clinical Applications of MR Perfusion Imaging
Introduction
Principles
Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast Perfusion MRI
Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Perfusion MRI
Arterial Spin Labeled Perfusion MRI
Clinical Applications
Cerebrovascular Disorders
Acute Ischemia
MR Perfusion and Acute Ischemic Syndrome
Luxury Perfusion and Reperfusion Injury
Subacute and Chronic Ischemia
Perfusion Patterns in Stenotic-Occlusive Disease
Cerebrovascular Reserve (CVR)
Territorial Mapping and Collateral Evaluation in Stenotic-Occlusive Disease
Moyamoya
Interventions
Hyperperfusion
Spasm
AVM
Neoplastic Disorders
Diagnosis and Grading
Differentiation of Neoplastic from Non-neoplastic Lesions
Intra-Axial Neoplasms
ASL Perfusion Imaging
Extent of Infiltration: Glioma Versus Metastasis Versus Lymphoma
Extra-Axial Neoplasms
Pre-treatment Planning
Biopsy Guidance
Prognosis
Radiogenomics
Post-Treatment Planning
Response to Therapy and Recurrence/Progression
Post-Treatment Imaging of Brain Tumors: Tumor Recurrence, Pseudoprogression and Radiation Necrosis
Pseudoresponse
Conclusion
References
6: Clinical Application of Perfusion and Diffusion in Stroke
Introduction
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
FLAIR, GRE, and SWI
Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI)
Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA)
Perfusion-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging (PWI)
Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL)
Computed Tomography Imaging
CT Angiography (CTA)
CT Perfusion (PCT)
Revascularization Trials
Hemorrhagic Stroke
Conclusion
References
7: Clinical Applications of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced (DCE) Permeability Imaging
Introduction
T2*-Weighted DSC MRI and T1-Weighted DCE MRI (Combined Approach)
Permeability in Gliomas
Permeability and Glioma Biology and Grade
Permeability for Guiding Stereotactic Biopsy and Radiosurgery
Therapeutic Monitoring
Pseudoprogression
Perfusion and Permeability Monitoring of Novel Antiangiogenic Agents
Tumor and Nontumoral Lesions
Extra-Axial Neoplasms (Meningioma, Schwannoma)
Challenges and Future Perspectives
Conclusion
References
8: CNS Tumor Surveillance and Functional MR Perfusion Imaging
Introduction
Differentiating Gliomas from Non-neoplastic Tumefactive Lesions
Differentiating Gliomas from Metastasis and Lymphoma
World Health Organization Glioma Classification
Assessment of Tumor Grade
Assessment of IDH1/2 Mutation Status
Assessment of Copy Number Variation (CNV)
Assessment of CDKN2A/B Homozygous Deletion (p16 Loss)
Assessment of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Anomalies
Assessment of MGMT Methylation
Assessment of Low-Grade Glioma Dedifferentiation
Biopsy Guidance
Predicting Outcome and Treatment Response
Assessment of Treatment Response
Pseudoprogression
Radiation Necrosis
Pseudoresponse
Limitations
References
Part III: Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer Imaging
9: Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Physical Principles
Introduction
Basic Principles of In Vivo MR Spectroscopy
Chemical Shift and J-Coupling
Contrast Mechanism: Echo Time (TE) and Repetition Time (TR)
Main Metabolites of the 1H In Vivo Proton Spectrum
N-Acetyl-Aspartate (NAA) and N-Acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG)
Creatine (Cr)
Choline (Cho)
Myo-Inositol (mI)
Glutamate (Glu) and Glutamine (Gln)
Lactate (Lac)
Lipids and Macromolecules (LipMM)
Other Metabolites Detectable with 1H MRS
Alanine (Ala)
Aspartate (Asp)
γ(gamma)-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
Glucose (Glc)
Glutathione (GSH)
Glycine (Glyc)
Scyllo-Inositol (sI)
Taurine
Additional Peaks
Data Acquisition
Acquisition Methods
2D or 3D Chemical Shift Imaging (CSI)
Editing Techniques
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) Considerations
Selecting the Region of Interest (ROI)
When to Use What Method?
How to Acquire Good-Quality Spectra
Processing of MR Spectra
Documentation and Storage
Quantitation
Safety
MR Spectroscopy at 3 T
Conclusion
References
10: Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Clinical Applications
Introduction
In Vivo 1H MRS
Magnetic Resonance Spectrum
Chemical Shift
Signal Intensities
Spin–Spin Coupling
Effect of the Choice of Acquisition Parameters on Appearance of the Spectra
1H MRS Localization Techniques
Single-Voxel MRS
MR Spectroscopic Imaging
Acquisition of MR Spectra
Assessment of Metabolite Concentrations
Neurochemical Profile of the Brain Tissue
Applications of In-Vivo 1H MRS in Neuroradiology
Age-Related and Regional Differences in Metabolite Concentrations
Age-Related Differences
Regional, Sex-Related and Hemispheric Differences in 1H MR Spectra
Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy
Stroke
Neurodegenerative Diseases
Dementias
Huntington’s Disease
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Infectious Diseases
Bacterial Infections
Viral Infections
Demyelinating Disorders
Multiple Sclerosis
Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
Epilepsy
Metabolic Disorders
Creatine and NAA Deficiency Syndromes
Phenylketonuria
Succinate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
Maple Syrup Urine Disease
Nonketotic Hyperglycinemia
Canavan Disease
Mitochondrial Disorders
Neurodegenerative White Matter Disorders
Hepatic Encephalopathy
Brain Tumors
Differentiation Between Tumors and Non-neoplastic Lesions
Classification of Brain Tumors
Tumor Grading
Meningiomas
Solitary Metastases
IDH Mutation and 2-HG
Post-Treatment Evaluation
Conclusion
References
11: Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (CEST) Imaging
Introduction to Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (CEST) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Neurooncological Applications of CEST MRI
Endogenous CEST Contrasts in Neurooncological Applications
Assessment of Histopathologic Tumor Subtypes with CEST
Therapy Response Assessment, Prognostication, and Outcome Prediction with CEST
Exogenous CEST Contrasts: Glucose-Enhanced MRI of Brain Tumors
pH-Sensitive CEST MRI in Neurooncological Applications
Assessment of Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke Using CEST MRI
pH-Sensitive APT Imaging of Acute Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke
Intracerebral Hemorrhage
CEST MRI of Neurodegenerative Diseases
Alzheimer’s Disease
Parkinson’s Disease
Multiple Sclerosis
Imaging of Other Neurological Disorders Using Glutamate-Sensitive CEST (GluCEST) MRI
Epilepsy
Encephalitis
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Multimodal Functional Neuroradiology
12: Functional Imaging-Based Diagnostic Strategy: Intra-axial Brain Masses
Introduction
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Metabolic Markers for Intra-axial Brain Tumors
Differential Diagnosis, Preoperative Tumor Grading, and Biopsy Guidance
Therapeutic Monitoring
Diffusion Imaging
Differential Diagnosis, Preoperative Tumor Grading, and Biopsy Guidance
Therapeutic Monitoring and Prognostication
Perfusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Role of Perfusion Imaging in Preoperative Tumor Grading and Biopsy Guidance
Therapeutic Monitoring and Prognostication
Intra-axial Brain Mass Diagnostic Strategy
High-Grade Gliomas
Low-Grade Gliomas
Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma
Brain Metastases
Tumefactive Demyelinating Lesions
Encephalitis
Brain Abscesses
Pitfalls and Special Circumstances
Pediatric Brain Tumors
Post-treatment Imaging
Current Challenges and Future Directions
References
13: Functional Neuroimaging of Epilepsy
Introduction
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Focal Cortical Dysplasia
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Mesial Temporal Sclerosis
Epileptogenic Tumors
Magnetic Source Imaging or Magnetoencephalography
Focal Cortical Dysplasia
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Diffusion Tensor Imaging
Mesial Temporal Sclerosis
Focal Cortical Dysplasia
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) in Epilepsy
Ictal SPECT: Practical Issues
Ictal and Interictal SPECT
Interictal SPECT Versus Interictal PET
Invasive Functional Assessment: Depth Electrode and Grid Electrode Placement
Conclusion
References
14: Functional Neuroradiology of Traumatic Brain Injury
Introduction
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H-MRS)
Brain Perfusion
Resting-State Functional MRI
Conclusion
References
15: Functional Neuroradiology of Multiple Sclerosis: Non-BOLD Techniques
Introduction
Diffusion-Weighted Imaging/Diffusion Tensor Imaging
Brain
Spine
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Imaging
Perfusion-Weighted Imaging
Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast
Dynamic Contrast Enhanced
Arterial Spin Labeling
Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging
Evolving Techniques
Magnetization Transfer Imaging (MTI)
New Markers of Neuroinflammation
Leptomeningeal Enhancement and New MRI Contrast Agents
PET Markers of Neuroinflammation
CEST-APT
References
DWI
MRS
PWI
SWI
MTR
New Markers of Neuroinflammation
16: Functional Neuroradiology of Psychiatric Diseases
Introduction
Autism
Schizophrenia
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Mood Disorders
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Conclusion
References
17: Neuroimaging of Pain
Introduction
Clinical Utility of Functional Neuroimaging
The Specific Problem of Clinical Pain Assessment
Classifications of Neuroimaging
Applying Neroimaging to Clinical Conditions
Molecular Measurement by MR Spectroscopy
Neuroimaging Studies of Pain Utilizing MR Spectroscopy (MRS)
Chronic Low Back Pain
Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Type I (CRPS Type I)
Neuropathic Pain
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
Temporomandibular Disorders and Orofacial Pain
Fibromyalgia (FM)
Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Vulvodynia (VVS)
Evoked Pain in Healthy Control Subjects
Basal Cerebral Blood Flow by PET, SPECT, and Resting State fMRI (rs-fMRI)
Fibromyalgia (FM)
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
Basal Cerebral Blood Flow by Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL)
Evoked Pain in Healthy Control Subjects
Chronic Low Back Pain
PET Evaluation of Glucose Metabolism and Ligand Binding
Fibromyalgia (FM)
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
Vulvodynia (VVS)
Anatomic Measurements of Gray and White Matter by Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM)
Voxel-Based Gray Matter Morphometry (VBM) in Fibromyalgia (FM)
Evaluation of Gray Matter in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
Evaluation of Gray Matter in IBS
Evaluation of Gray Matter in Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI)
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
DTW and DTI Applications to White Matter Evaluation in Pain
Neuropathic Pain
Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
Fibromyalgia (FM)
White Matter Perfusion Using Contrast-Based and ASL Imaging in Fibromyalgia (FM)
Evaluation of White Matter in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
Evaluation of White Matter in IBS
Evaluation of Gray Matter in VVS
Anatomical Measures of Gray and White Matter
Conclusion: Future Considerations
References
18: Quantitative and Physiological Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Glioma
Introduction
Characterization Of Glioma
Histopathological and Molecular Characterization
IDH1 and IDH2 Mutations
1p/19q Codeletion
ATRX and TP53 Mutations
O-6-Methylguanine-DNA Methyltransferase (MGMT) Promoter Methylation Status
Physiological and Ultrastructural MRI Techniques for Glioma Characterization
Diffusion MRI
Perfusion MRI
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
MRI to Detect MGMT Promoter Methylation
Imaging Biomarkers of Malignant Transformation and Progression
Risk Factors
Contrast Enhancement on Conventional MRI
Tumor Volume and Growth Kinetics
Quantitative Imaging Biomarkers
Advanced MRI in Treatment Planning
Evaluation of Therapeutic Response
MRI Biomarkers of Early Treatment Response
Quantitative and Physiological Imaging to Discriminate Progression Versus “Treatment Effect”
Diffusion Imaging to Discriminate Between PD and PsP
Diffusion MRI to Differentiate PD from PsP
Perfusion Imaging as a Discriminator of PD from PsP
MRS as a Discriminator Between PD and PsP
Antiangiogenic Therapy and Non-enhancing Tumor
Immunotherapy Response Assessment
Impression and Conclusions
References
Part V: BOLD Functional MRI: Physical Principles
19: Principles of BOLD Functional MRI
Introduction
Physiological Changes
Functional Imaging Contrasts
T1-Weighted Perfusion fMRI
CBV-Weighted fMRI
T2* and T2-Weighted BOLD fMRI
Intravascular BOLD Component
Extravascular BOLD Component
Spin-Echo Versus Gradient-Echo BOLD
BOLD Versus CBF
Contrast-to-Noise Ratio and Temporal Resolution
Conclusion
References
20: fMRI Scanning Methods
Introduction
Magnetic Resonance Physics
Acquisition Schemes
Spin Echo
Gradient Echo
Echo Planar Imaging
Applications
BOLD
Optimization of BOLD MRI
Z-Shim EPI
Arterial Spin Labeling
Simultaneous Multislice (SMS) or Multiband Imaging
Multicontrast EPI (EPIMix)
Conclusion
References
21: Experimental Design and Data Analysis for fMRI
Introduction
Basic Types of Neuroimaging Inference
Forward Inference
Reverse Inference
Connectivity
Manipulation of the Cognitive Process
Properties of the BOLD fMRI System That Impact Experimental Design
Different Temporal Structures of BOLD fMRI Experiments
Data Preprocessing
Distortion Correction
Slice Acquisition Correction
Motion Correction
Spatial Normalization
Spatial Smoothing
Statistical Analysis
Conclusion
References
22: Challenges in fMRI and Its Limitations
Introduction
MR Physics-Based Limitations in fMRI
Physics-Based Limitations on Spatial Resolution
SNR and Field Strength
Static Field Inhomogeneities
The Effect of Acquisition TR
Physiological Factors Influencing Spatial Resolution
Physiological-Based Limitations/Constraints in fMRI
Blood Oxygenation Changes and Localization
Functional Spatial Limitations
Brain System Dependent Limitations
The Draining Vein Problem
The Initial Dip
Subject Movement
Other Physiological Changes Associated with Brain Activation
Threshold Effects and Localization
Temporal Resolution of the BOLD Response
Pulse Sequences for fMRI: Spatial/Temporal Resolution
Imaging Approaches to Other Physiological Measurements
Arterial Spin Labeling
Sensitivity
Conclusion
References
23: Neurovascular Uncoupling in Functional MRI
Definition of Terms
Introduction
Control of Cerebral Blood Flow
Neurovascular Coupling and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Assessing the Cerebrovascular Autoregulatory Reserve by Performing Cerebrovascular Reactivity Measurements
Exhausted Cerebrovascular Reserve Associated with Steal Physiology
The Consequences of Exhausted Cerebrovascular Reserve Associated with Steal Physiology on Neuronal Network Mapping Using Task-Based BOLD MRI and BOLD-CVR
Distinguishing Hemodynamics from Embolic Neurological Events
The Long-Term Consequences of Chronic Steal Physiology on the Brain: “The Neurovascular Uncoupling Syndrome”
Conclusion
References
24: Functional Connectivity MR Imaging
Introduction
Standard Methods
Image Acquisition
Seed-to-Whole Brain Connectivity Maps
Preprocessing
Removal of Physiologic Noise
Temporal Filtering
Removal of Time Courses Believed to Be Associated with Noise Sources
Seed Region Definition
Anatomically Defined or Atlas-Based Seed Regions
Task-Based Functionally Defined Seed Regions
Postprocessing
Direct Correlation of Regional Time Courses (Seed-to-Seed)
Data-Driven Approaches
Independent Components Analysis
Other Data-Driven Methods for Parcellation of the Brain
Assessment of Network Properties After Node Identification
Relating Function to Connectivity
Clinical Applications
Conclusion
References
25: Clinical Challenges of Functional MRI
Introduction
Mapping Cognitive Function with Activation Versus Disruption
Technical Considerations
Field Strength
Scan Sequence and Susceptibility
Study and Task Design
Task Selection
Practice Effects
Task Difficulty
Task Choice
Special Task Considerations
Head Motion
Iatrogenic Considerations
Analysis
Within Subject vs. Group Analysis
Dependent Measures
Reproducibility
Conjunction Analysis
Applying fMRI to Clinical Planning
Significance of Signal Localization
Reliability of Signal Adjacent to Pathology
Value of Resting-State fMRI (rs-fMRI)
Relationship to Outcomes
Conclusion
References
Part VI: BOLD Functional MRI: Clinical & Cognitive Applications
26: fMRI of Language Systems: Methods and Applications
Introduction
Some Proposed Clinical Applications of fMRI Language Mapping
Presurgical Applications
Prediction of Outcome in Aphasia
Diagnosis
Monitoring Treatment Effects
Language and Language Processes
Some Common Pitfalls in Language Mapping
Inadequate Analysis of Language Tasks
Inadequate Control Tasks
Lack of Behavioral Data
Survey of Some Common Language Activation Protocols
Language Task: Passively Listening to Words or Sentences
Control Task: Resting
Language Task: Passively Listening to Words or Sentences
Control Task: Passively Listening to Nonspeech
Language Task: Word Generation
Control Task: Resting or Fixation
Language Task: Word Generation
Control Task: Reading or Repeating
Language Task: Visual Object Naming
Control Task: Resting or Fixation
Language Task: Semantic Decision
Control Task: Sensory Discrimination
Language Task: Semantic Decision
Control Task: Phonological or Phonetic Decision
Language Task: Sentence or Word Reading
Control Task: Viewing Letter Strings or Visual Nonletters
Language Lateralization: Normative, Reliability, and Validation Studies
Normative Studies
Test–Retest Reliability
Wada Comparisons
Comparisons with Electrical Stimulation Mapping
Outcome Prediction Studies
Prediction of Language Outcome
Prediction of Verbal Memory Outcome
Illustrative Cases Using Language fMRI For Quantitative Outcome Prediction
Conclusion
Future Applications: Use of fMRI Language Maps in Surgical Planning
References
27: Functional MRI of Language and Memory in Surgical Epilepsy: fMRI Wada Test
Introduction
The IAT: History and Background
Description of a Standardized IAT Protocol
Language Mapping with fMRI as Compared to IAT
Concordance Between fMRI and IAT Language Lateralization
Discordance Between fMRI and IAT Language Lateralization
fMRI Language Task Selection Considerations
Considerations for Determination of fMRI Language Laterality
Pediatric Language fMRI
Prediction of Postoperative Language Outcome Using fMRI
Case Examples of fMRI Language Activation
fMRI Memory Paradigms as Compared to the IAT
fMRI of Visuospatial/Nonverbal Memory
fMRI of Verbal Memory
Multimodality Memory fMRI Paradigms
Using fMRI to Predict Postsurgical Memory Outcome
Case Examples of fMRI Memory Activation
rsfMRI for Presurgical Mapping in Epilepsy Patients
Use of rsfMRI for Language Lateralization
Association of rsfMRI with Postoperative Language Outcome
Association of rsfMRI with Memory Functioning and Postoperative Memory Outcome
rsfMRI and Multidomain Cognitive Outcomes in TLE
rsfMRI in Pediatric Epilepsy Patients
Summary of Findings for rsfMRI for Surgical Epilepsy and as Related to the IAT
Reliability, Validity, and Clinical Factors Pertinent to fMRI Presurgical Mapping
Summary and Conclusions
References
28: Resting State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Introduction
Neuronal Organization, Activity, and Recorded Network Observations
Visualizing Functional Networks: Blood Oxygenation Level–Dependent Imaging
Data Acquisition
Data Processing and Analysis
Overview of Resting State Networks
Resting-State fMRI in Intelligence and Individuality and Normal Cognition
Resting-State fMRI in Development and Aging
Resting-State fMRI in Disease
Resting-State fMRI in Surgical Planning
Current Status and Outlook: Can Clinical Resting State Move Beyond a “Resting” State?
Conclusion
References
29: fMRI of Human Visual Pathways
Introduction
Functional Organization of the Human Visual System
Retinotopic Organization
Multiple Visual Areas and Pathways
Functional Specialization
Visual System White Matter Tracts and DTI
Clinical Implications of Visual System Organization
Clinical Applications
Methodology
Visual Field Mapping
Functionally Specific Tests
fMRI Workflow (with Details for Visual System Mapping)
Initial Patient Assessment
Diagnostic Imaging
PrefMRI Assessment and Training. Peripherals Setup and Quality Assurance
FMRI Scan Acquisition
Acquisition Q/A
Postprocessing
Display/Report/Archiving
Interpretation/Treatment Guidance
Follow-Up
Specific Pathologies and Issues
Tumor Resection/Radiation
Epilepsy Treatment
Arterio-Venous Malformations
Diagnosis/Interpretation of Vision Pathologies
Sensory Loss vs. Attentional Neglect
Agnosias and Extrastriate Visual Areas
Cerebral Achromatopsia
Stroke
Complicating Factors
Neurovascular Uncoupling (NVU)
Tissue Distortions
Conclusion
References
30: Functional MRI Studies of Memory in Aging, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and Alzheimer’s Disease
Introduction
Episodic Memory
fMRI Studies of Episodic Memory
fMRI of Episodic Encoding: The Role of the PFC
fMRI of Episodic Encoding: The Role of the MTL
fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval
fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval: The Role of the PFC
fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval: The Role of the MTL
fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval: The Role of the Parietal Cortex
fMRI Studies to Identify the Neural Correlates of the Component Processes of Episodic Retrieval
Age-Related Changes in Episodic Memory
fMRI Studies of Episodic Encoding and Retrieval in Normal Aging
Episodic Memory in Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Conditions
fMRI Studies of Episodic Memory in Patients with AD
fMRI Studies of Episodic Memory in Patients with MCI
Functional and Resting State Connectivity Associated with Episodic Memory
fMRI Studies of Episodic Associated Connectivity in Healthy Young Adults
fMRI Studies of Episodic Associated Connectivity in Healthy Older Adults
fMRI Studies of Episodic Associated Connectivity in Patients with MCI and AD
fMRI of Episodic Memory Function as a Biomarker: Patients At-Risk for AD and after Therapeutic Intervention
Summary
Semantic Memory
fMRI of the Neuroanatomical Substrates of Semantic Memory
fMRI of Semantic Memory in Normal Aging
fMRI Studies of Semantic Memory in MCI and AD
fMRI Studies of Semantic Memory Associated Connectivity in Healthy Young Adults
fMRI of Semantic Memory in Patients At-Risk for AD and after Therapeutic Intervention
Summary
Working Memory
fMRI Studies of the Neural Basis for Working Memory
fMRI Studies of Working Memory in Healthy Aging
fMRI Studies of Working Memory in MCI and AD
fMRI Studies of Working Memory Associated Connectivity in Healthy Young Adults
fMRI Studies of Working Memory Associated Connectivity in Healthy Aging, MCI, and AD
fMRI Studies of Working Memory in Patients At-Risk for AD and After Pharmacological Intervention
Summary
Methodological Issues in the Use of fMRI in Aging and Dementia Research
Future Directions
Multi-Modal Imaging Studies and Technological Advancements in MRI
Novel fMRI Memory Paradigms
Conclusion
References
31: Brain Mapping for Cognitive Neuroscience and Neurosurgery
Introduction
The Unity Principle: Cortical Processes Are Linked to Mental Events—Lesion Studies to Neuroimaging
Development of Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Visualize Living Brain Structure
The Development of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Visualize Living Brain Function
The BOLD Response
The “Real Estate” Principle: Functional Specialization from “Bottom-Up” and “Top-Down”
Identification and Preservation of Cortical Areas Specialized for Essential Tasks
Standard of Care and CPT Codes
Tasks for fMRI and Mapping of Essential Functions
An Example of a Multifunction Task Battery
Healthy Volunteers and Patients
Sensitivity of Task Battery: Healthy Volunteers
Sensitivity of Task Battery: Surgical Population
Comparison of Task Sensitivity for Patients and Healthy Volunteers
Accuracy of Task Battery: Comparison with Intraoperative Electrophysiology
Comparison of fMRI, Wada, and Intraoperative Language Mapping
Comparison of fMRI and Visual Fields
Integrative Mapping of Sensory and Motor Functions
Interoperative Mapping of Language Functions
Postsurgical Status
Functional MRI During Loss of Consciousness: A “Voice” for Unresponsive Patients
“Zero-Tolerance” for Error
Functional Mapping During Sedation
Functional Mapping of Minimally Conscious Patients
An Illustrative Case
Objective Assessment of Patient States During a Disorder of Consciousness Based on the Extent of the Network Engaged by a Command to Name Objects
Determination of the Anatomy and Topography of Cortical Areas Specialized for Cognitive Tasks
Conservation of Effects Versus Individual Differences: Generalizing the Results
Method of Cognitive Subtraction
Method of Cognitive Conjunction
Integration of Functionally Specialized Areas Associated with Cognitive Tasks: The Network Approach
Functional Neuroanatomy of Language Processes: A Large-Scale Network
Functional Neuroanatomy of Attention Processes: A Large-Scale Network
Tests of Cognitive Theory Based on Mapping of Neural Correlates
Functional Neuroanatomy of Working Memory: A Fixed- or Variable-Area Network
The N-Back Task and a Test of a Cognitive Theory
Functional Neuroanatomy of Selective Attention: A Neurological Model of Cognitive Interference
The Stroop Task
Functional Neuroanatomy of Executive Processes: Separate or Combined Systems
The Go/No-Go Task
Integration of Temporal and Spatial Information to Map Executive Processes
Integration of ERP and fMRI
Event-Related fMRI
The Oddball Task
The Functional Neuroanatomy of Very High Level Cognitive Processes
Conclusion
References
32: fMRI of the Central Auditory System
Introduction
Anatomical Organization of the Central Auditory System
Subcortical Organization
Cortical Organization
Primary Core Region
Nonprimary Belt and Parabelt Regions
Technical Challenges Involved in Auditory fMRI
Sound Presentation in the MR Scanner
Safe Scanning of Patients Who Are Wearing Listening Devices in the MR Scanner
Intense Scanner Acoustic Sound
Auditory-Friendly fMRI Acquisition Paradigms
Clinical Applications of Auditory fMRI
Plasticity Related to Hearing Loss as Measured by fMRI
Plasticity Related to Amplification as Measured by fMRI
Cochlear Implantation: Assessment of Candidature and Evaluation of Hearing Recovery
Conclusion
References
33: fMRI of Epilepsy
Introduction
Special Issues in Patients with Epilepsy
FMRI Applications in the Definition of Eloquent Cortical Areas in Epilepsy
Lateralization and Localization of Language
Memory Function
Sensorimotor Systems
Malformations of Cortical Development
Localization of the Epileptic Focus
Ictal fMRI
Interictal fMRI
Methodological Aspects of EEG-Correlated fMRI
EEG-Correlated fMRI of Interictal Activity
Conclusion
References
34: Functional MRI of Multiple Sclerosis
fMRI Studies of the Visual System
fMRI Studies of the Motor System
fMRI Studies of Cognition
fMRI of Fatigue, Depression, Pain, and Other MS Symptoms
Connectivity
Cervical Cord Activation
fMRI of Pharmacologic and Behavioral Interventions
Pediatric MS
Conclusion
References
35: Applications of fMRI to Psychiatry
Introduction
Rs-fMRI
Task-Based fMRI
Mood Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Rs-fc Studies
Task-Based fMRI
Executive Control Tasks
Emotion Processing Tasks
Bipolar Disorder (BD)
Rs-fc Studies
Task-Based fMRI
Executive Function and Cognitive Tasks
Emotion Processing Tasks
Motor Tasks
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Rs-fc Studies
Task-Based fMRI
Symptom Provocation Paradigms
Trauma-Unrelated Stimuli Paradigms
Substance Use Disorders
Rs-fc Studies
Task-Based fMRI
Cue-Related Reactivity
Cognitive Tasks
Emotion Processing Tasks
Applications of Machine Learning in fMRI
Conclusion
References
36: Applications of fMRI to Neurodegenerative Disease
Introduction
Aging Brain
Neurodegenerative Diseases
Functional MRI in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Dementias
Preclinical AD
MCI
AD
Functional MRI Studies of Memory
Functional MRI in Patients with MCI
Functional MRI in Patients with AD
BOLD Resting-State Connectivity in MCI and AD
Preclinical AD
MCI and AD
Functional MRI Studies in Individuals at Genetic Risk for AD
Functional MRI to Assess Pharmacologic Therapy for AD
Overall Picture
Frontotemporal Dementia
Functional MRI in Patients with FTD
Vascular Dementia
Functional MRI in Patients with Vascular Dementia
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Functional MRI in Patients with Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Movement Disorders
Parkinson’s Disease
Motor fMRI in Patients with PD
Motor fMRI Studies of Bradykinesia and Tremor.
Motor fMRI Studies of Therapy for PD.
Motor fMRI Studies in Patients with Familial PD.
Motor fMRI Studies in Patients with Hemiparkinsonian Disease.
Cognitive fMRI in Patients with PD
Visual fMRI in Patients with PD
Olfaction fMRI in Patients with PD
Overall Picture
Huntington’s Disease
Functional MRI in Patients with Pre-HD
Functional MRI in Patients with HD
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Resting-State fMRI in Patients with ALS
Functional MRI of Motor Paradigms in Patients with ALS
Functional MRI of Extramotor Paradigms in Patients with ALS
Multiple System Atrophy
Wilson’s Disease (Hepatolenticular Degeneration)
Conclusion
References
37: Applications of MRI to Psychopharmacology
Introduction
Background
Animal Research
Clinical Research
Conclusion
References
38: Functional MRI: Cognitive Neuroscience Applications
Introduction
Inference in Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Processes
Functional MRI as a Cognitive Neuroscience Tool
Temporal Resolution
Spatial Resolution
Issues in Functional MRI Experimental Design
Issues in Interpretation of fMRI Data
Statistics
Altered Hemodynamic Response
Types of Hypotheses Tested Using fMRI
Functional Specialization
Functional Integration
Cognitive Theory
Integration of Multiple Methods
Combined fMRI/Lesion Studies
Combined fMRI/Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
Combined fMRI/Event-Related Potential Studies
Combined fMRI/Pharmacological Studies
Application of a Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Clinical Studies
Use of Biomarkers Derived from Cognitive Neuroscience Studies
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Diffusion Tensor Imaging: Physical Principles
39: Diffusion Tensor Magnetic Resonance Imaging – Physical Principles
Introduction
Anisotropic Diffusion
Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
Implications of Anisotropic Diffusion for DWI
Diffusion Tensor Imaging
Common Artifacts
Number of Diffusion-Encoding Directions
Ratio of b = 0 Images to Diffusion-Weighted Images
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Rendering DTI Data
Spherical, Oblate, Prolate Tensors, and DTI “Data Mining”
Trace
Fractional Anisotropy
Longitudinal and Transverse Diffusivity
Basics of Tractography
Crossroads
Diffusion Kurtosis
Time-Dependent Diffusion with Oscillating Gradients
Geometric Multicompartment Models
“Model-Free” Techniques
Parallel Imaging
In-Plane Parallel Imaging
Simultaneous Multislice EPI
Conclusion
References
40: Advanced Diffusion Imaging in Neuroradiology
Introduction
Diffusion Imaging and Diffusion Tensor Imaging
Model-Free Q-Space and Diffusion Spectrum Imaging
High Angular Resolution Diffusion Imaging
Neurite Orientation Dispersion and Density Imaging
Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging
BI-Tensor/Free Water Imaging
Hybrid Approaches
Conclusion
References
Part VIII: Diffusion Tensor Imaging: Clinical Applications
41: Diffusion Tractography in Neurosurgical Planning: Overview of Advanced Clinical Applications
Part I: Principles and Backgrounds of Diffusion Tensor Imaging and Diffusion Tensor Tractography
Part II: Clinical Applications of Tractography
Tractography in Deep Brain Stimulation
The Role of Tractography in Epilepsy Surgery
The Role of Tractography in Oncology
The Role of Tractography in Multiple Sclerosis
The Role of Tractography in Stroke
The Role of Tractography in Spinal Cord Surgery
Conclusion
References
42: Issues in Translating Imaging Technology and Presurgical Diffusion Tensor Imaging
Introduction
Disconnect Between Translational Research and Clinical Translation
Determinants of Imaging Technology Translation
Clinical Impact
Relative Invasiveness
Speed of Technology Development and Translation
Physician Comfort
Resource Impact
Conceptualizing Relationships Among Translational Determinants
Goals of Presurgical DTI
Limitations of Color-Coded Fractional Anisotropy
Importance of Integrating Presurgical DTI with Other Localization Parameters
Clinical Presentation
Functional Anatomy at Standard MRI
Presurgical Mapping Anatomy and Techniques
Intraoperative Brain Mapping and Intraoperative Functional Assessments
Summary
Protocols for Presurgical CC-DTI
The Impact of CC-FA DTI on Operative Decision-Making
Intraoperative Electrostimulation of White Matter (IES)
Intraoperative Functional Dissection Testing (FDT)
Summary
Quality Assurance and the Translation of DTI
Cataloguing Postoperative Neurological Outcomes
Impact of DTI
Guide to Clinical Fiber Tractography
Acquisition
Postprocessing
Integration with Surgical Navigation System
Limitations and Challenges of Fiber Tracking
Color-Coded Fractional Anisotropy Versus Fiber Tracking
Future Developments of DTI and Presurgical Fiber Tracking
Conclusion
References
43: Clinical Applications of Diffusion MRI in Epilepsy
Introduction
Fundamental Concepts in Diffusion MRI
Peri-ictal Diffusion MRI of Seizures
Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
Hippocampal Pathology
White Matter Pathology
Surgical Planning
Malformations of Cortical Development
Conclusion: Future Directions
References
Part IX: Clinical Presurgical Brain Tumor Mapping
44: fMRI and DTI: Review of Complementary Techniques
Introduction
BOLD fMRI
Clinical fMRI
Paradigms in Clinical fMRI
Sensorimotor Paradigms
Language Paradigms
Expressive Language Paradigms
Receptive Language Paradigms
Semantic Paradigms
Visual Paradigms
Memory Paradigms
Diffusion Tensor Imaging
Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
Diffusion Tensor
Fiber Tractography
Clinical Impact of BOLD fMRI and DTI
Case Reports Highlighting the Value of Preoperative Combined BOLD fMRI and DTI for Presurgical Planning
Case 44.1
History
Imaging Findings
Impact on Surgical Management/Postoperative Outcome
Histopathology
Case 44.2
History
Imaging Findings
Impact on Surgical Management/Postoperative Outcome
Histopathology
Case 44.3
History
Imaging Findings
Impact on Surgical Management/Postoperative Outcome
Histopathology
Conclusion
References
45: DTI: Functional Anatomy of Key Tracts
Introduction
Association Tracts (Figs. 45.3, 45.4, 45.5, 45.6, 45.7, 45.8, 45.9, 45.10, 45.11, 45.12, 45.13, 45.14, 45.15, 45.16, 45.17, and 45.18)
Commissural Tracts
Projection Tracts
Association Tracts
Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus
SLF I
SLF II
SLF III
SLF IV (Arcuate Fasciculus Complex)
SLF V (SLF TP-SPL)
Inferior Fronto-Occipital Fasciculus
Inferior Longitudinal Fasciculus
Superior Fronto-Occipital Fasciculus
Middle Longitudinal Fasciculus (MdLF)
Extreme Capsule
Frontal Aslant Tract
Cingulate Fasciculus or Cingulum Bundle
Fornix and Stria Terminalis
Uncinate Fasciculus
Commissural Tracts
Corpus Callosum
Anterior Commissure
Miscellaneous Commissural Tracts
Visual Pathway
DTI: Clinical Cases (Figs. 45.39, 45.40, 45.41, 45.42, 45.43, and 45.44)
References
46: Pediatric Applications of fMRI
Introduction
Uniqueness of FMRI in Children
FMRI Technical Challenges in Children
Study Design
The Three Paradigm Types
Passive Paradigms Under Sedation
Sedation of Choice
Motion
Motion Correction (Image Postprocessing)
Spatial Normalization
Statistical Analysis
Thresholding
Applications
Cortical Functional Mapping for Surgical Planning
Language Mapping
Noncooperative Patients
Language Mapping of Partially Cooperative Children
Language Mapping of Fully Cooperative Children
Motor Mapping
Motor Mapping in Noncooperative Patients
Motor Mapping in Patients with Limited Cooperation
Motor Mapping of Cooperative Patients
Sensory Mapping
Visual Mapping
Noncooperative Patients
Visual Mapping in Partial Cooperative and Full Cooperative Patients
Auditory Mapping
Auditory Mapping in Noncooperative Patients
Auditory Mapping in Cooperative Patients
Memory Mapping
Complex Cognitive Functions
FMRI in Specific Pediatric Conditions
Development
Epilepsy
Ictal fMRI
Interictal fMRI
The Mean-BOLD
Autism
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Dyslexia
Brain Plasticity
Other fMRI Studies in Specific Pediatric Conditions
Pharmacology-fMRI (ph-fMRI) in Children
Other Significant Findings in Task-Related fMRI on Children
rs-fMRI in Children
The Default Mode
Clinical Application
Conclusion
References
Part X: Magnetoenphalopathy and PET Imaging
47: Magnetoencephalography: Epilepsy and Brain Mapping
Introduction
Clinical Utility
The MEG System
The Clinical MEG Examination
Recording of Spontaneous and Elicited Activity
Evoked Recordings and Mapping
Somatosensory
Motor Mapping
Visual Stimulation
Language Function
Conclusion
References
48: PET-CT/MR Imaging in Head and Neck Cancer: Physiologic Variations, Pitfalls, and Directed Applications
Introduction
Pertinent Head and Neck Anatomy
Evaluating Head and Neck Cancer
Limitations of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Limitations of FDG-PET in Evaluating Head and Neck Cancer
Summary: PET-CT in the Evaluation of Head and Neck Cancer
Conclusion
References
49: Simultaneous PET and MR Imaging of the Human Brain
Introduction
Integrating PET AND MRI: Hardware Perspective
Challenges in Combining PET and MRI
Approaches to Combining PET and MRI
MR-Compatible Dedicated Brain PET Inserts
Whole-Body PET/MRI Scanners
Technologies Enabling New Science
How Can Simultaneously Acquired MRI Improve PET?
Attenuation Correction
Motion Correction
Partial Volume Correction
Image-Based Arterial Input Function Estimation
Deep Learning-Enabled PET Data Enhancement
How Can Simultaneously Acquired PET Improve MRI?
PET-Guided MR Imaging
Artifact-Free MR Image Generation from Undersampled Data
In-Vivo Quantification of “Smart” MR Probes
Techniques for Cross-Calibration and Validation
Promising Applications
Basic Neuroscience
Neuroreceptor Pharmacology and Modulation
Brain Function, Behavior, and Cognition
Functional Networks and Connectivity
Psychiatry
Schizophrenia
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Depression
Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
Other Neurological Applications
Chronic Pain
Brain Tumors
Ischemic Stroke
Conclusion
References
Part XI: Emerging Neuroimaging Techniques
50: Functional Imaging in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Magnetoencephalography
MEG Investigations of Auditory Processing in ASD
M50 and M100 Components
Mismatch Field Component
Auditory Gamma-Band Activity
Theta, Alpha, and Beta-Band Activity
MEG Investigations of Resting State in ASD
Clinical Implications
Conclusion
References
51: The Role of Molecular Imaging in Personalized Medicine
Introduction
Linking Molecular Imaging, Cancer Biology, and Personalized Medicine
The Application of a Systems Biology Approach to Cancer
Cancer Biomarkers for Clinical Use
Nanoparticles for Cancer MR Diagnostics and Therapeutics
Magnetic Nanoparticles
Quantum Dots
Nanoshells
The Role of Radiology in Personalized Medicine
Clinical and Near-Clinical Molecular Imaging Applications Using Targeted Probes
Oncologic Molecular Imaging for Detection of Nodal Metastases and Cancer Staging
Molecular Imaging of Cell-Based Therapies
Molecular Imaging of Dendritic Cell Migration to Regional Nodes for Tumor Immunotherapy
Molecular Imaging of Gene Expression and Therapy
Molecular Imaging of Thrombosis in Atherosclerotic Disease
Conclusion
References
52: Quantitative Metabolic Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Case for Bioscales in Medicine
Introduction
Approaches to Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Disease
Bioscales for Monitoring Disease Progression
Quantitative Sodium Imaging and Cell Volume Fraction Bioscale
Clinical Applications of Sodium Bioscales
Subacute Stroke Management
Tumor Response to Radiation and Chemotherapy
Case 52.1
Case 52.2
Other Uses of Metabolic Imaging Bioscales
Conclusion
References
53: Magnetic Resonance Fingerprinting
Introduction
Overview of Technique
Signal Acquisition
Dictionary Generation
Pattern Matching
Reconstruction and Output
Technical Advances
Extended Coverage
Partial Volume Effect
Other Technical Advances
Validation, Repeatability, and Reproducibility
Clinical Applications
Age-Related Physiological Changes in the Brain and Neurodegenerative Diseases
Brain Tumor Imaging
Epilepsy Imaging
Radiation Therapy Planning
Other Applications
Bridging the Translational Gap
Conclusion
References
54: Neuroimaging of Brain Tumors in the Era of Radiogenomics
Introduction
Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning and Deep Learning in a Nutshell
Standardization of Brain Tumor Imaging
Radiogenomics of Brain Tumors
Adult Diffuse Gliomas
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (IDH) Mutation
1p/19q Chromosomal Codeletion
ATRX and TP53 Mutation
MGMT Methylation Status
Pediatric Diffuse Gliomas
Diffuse Midline and Hemispheric Pediatric High-Grade Gliomas
Ependymomas
Embryonal Tumors–Medulloblastomas (MB) and Others
Medulloblastoma
Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (AT/RT)
Embryonal Tumor with Multilayered Rosettes (ETMR)
Conclusion
References
55: Radiomics and Radiogenomics in Glioma
Introduction
Relationship Between Genotypes and Radiomics in Glioma
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase 1 and 2
1p/19q Deletion
ATRX
O6-Methylguanine-DNA-Methyltransferase (MGMT)
EGFR
TP53
Ki-67 Expression
Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
56: Quantitative T1ρ MR Imaging in Neuroradiology
Background on T1ρ Magnetic Resonance Imaging
T1ρ Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Applications to Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Normative Data
Neurodegeneration
Multiple Sclerosis
Acute Ischemic Infarct
Intracranial Neoplasm
T1ρ Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Applications to Spine Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Normative Data
Conclusion
References
57: Neurological Applications of Magnetic Resonance-Guided Focused Ultrasound Therapy
A Brief History
Sequence of Breakthroughs
Current Ablative Applications in Movement Disorders
Essential Tremor
Parkinson’s Disease
Current Applications in Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption
Brain Tumors
Alzheimer’s Disease
Future Applications
Conclusion
References
58: CNS Machine Learning
Introduction
Basic Definitions
Machine Learning: Some Basic Terms
Common Machine Learning Algorithms
Some Common Machine Learning Algorithms
Regression Algorithms
Classification Algorithms
Clustering Algorithms
Dimensionality Reduction Algorithms
Ensemble Algorithms
Deep Learning
Training and Optimizing
Overfitting and Data Augmentation
Common Deep Learning Algorithms
Autoencoder
Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
UNET
U-Nets
Generative Adversarial Network (GAN)
Model Design and Assessment
Data Preparation and Augmentation
Applications in Neuroradiology
Detection
Critical Findings on Emergent CT
Screening for Aneurysm
Classification
Classify Different Tumors and Subtypes
Classify Different Types of Dementia
Segmentation
Prediction
Prediction in Acute Ischemic Stroke
Predict Aneurysm Rupture Risk and Outcome
Predict Conversion of MCI to AD
Improving Image Quality
Image Improvement and Synthesis
Dose Reduction and Virtual Contrast Enhancement
Reconstruction from Subsampled Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
Improve Image Quality in Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping (QSM)
Reduce Acquisition Time: Magnetic Resonance Fingerprinting
Challenges Ahead
Summary
References
59: Anatomical and Functional Features of the Central Nervous System Lymphatic System
Anatomy and Function of the Peripheral Lymphatic System
Unmet Needs: Chronic Neurodegenerative Disorders
Overview of the Human Glymphatic System
Traditional Model of CSF Flow and Clearance
Expansion of CSF Flow and Clearance in the Glymphatic Pathway
Potential Relevance of Glymphatic Dysfunction in Disease
Sleep
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Cerebrovascular Disease
Multiple Sclerosis
Alzheimer’s Disease
Conclusion
References
60: TBI Sports Related Injury
Introduction
Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) Functional MRI
Review of Resting-State fMRI Literature
Review of Task-Based fMRI Studies
Limitations and Considerations
Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL)
ASL Utilized in Patients During the Acute and Subacute Timeframes (<72 h to 3 months)
ASL Study During the Chronic Timeframe (3 Months and Beyond)
Summary
References
Part XII: Functional Spine and Hydrocephalus Imaging
61: Functional MRI of the Spinal Cord: Diffusion Weighted, Diffusion Tensor Imaging, and Fiber Tractography
Introduction
Challenges and Possible Options for Acquisition of DWI and DTI in the Spinal Cord
Clinical Applications of DTI in the Normal Spinal Cord and Spinal Cord Diseases
DTI in Multiple Sclerosis of the Spinal Cord
DTI in Spinal Cord Tumors
DTI in Arteriovenous Malformations
DTI in Cervical Degenerative Disease
DTI of HIV in the Spinal Cord
DTI in Transverse Myelitis
DTI in Spinal Cord Injury
DTI in Spinal Cord Ischemia
DTI of Pediatric Spinal Cord
Future Direction of DTI and FT in the Spinal Cord
Functional MRI of the Spine
Conclusion
References
62: Advanced Neuroimaging for Spine Metastasis
Background
Imaging of Spinal Metastasis
Conventional Spine Imaging
Advanced MR Imaging: Perfusion Imaging/DCE-MRI
Advanced MR Imaging: Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI)
Advanced MR Imaging: Perfusion Imaging
Advanced MR Imaging: Opposed-Phased MR Imaging
Advanced MR Imaging: Dixon Technique
Posttreatment Imaging Options
Conventional MRI
Advanced MR Imaging: DWI
Advanced MR Imaging: Perfusion MRI
Advanced MR Imaging: Opposed-Phase Imaging
Imaging in the Posttreatment Setting
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
63: Hydrocephalus Imaging
Introduction
Clinical Presentation
Etiologies of Hydrocephalus
Communicating and Noncommunicating Hydrocephalus
Clinical Testing and Imaging
Hydrocephalus Treatment
Imaging Methods for Hydrocephalus
Nuclear Medicine
Standard Cross-Sectional Imaging: CT and MRI
Advanced MRI Approaches to Hydrocephalus
Volumetrics
Phase Contrast and Other CSF Flow Imaging
Diffusion Tensor Imaging and Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
MR Elastography (MRE)
Noninvasive Measurements of Pressure and Compliance
The Role of Imaging for Classification of Point of Obstruction
High-Resolution 3D MRI Demonstrates Radiologic Patterns of Disease
AH-1: Foramen of Monro Stenosis
Radiologic Pattern
Etiologies and Clinical Management
AH-2
AH-2a: Stenosis or Obstruction of the Cerebral Aqueduct
Radiologic Pattern
Etiologies and Clinical Management
AH-2b Fourth Ventricular Outflow Obstruction
Radiologic Pattern
Etiologies and Clinical Management
AH-3: Posterior Basal Cisternal Obstruction
Radiologic Pattern
Etiologies and Clinical Management
AH-4: Apparent Loculations in the Cortical Subarachnoid Space
Radiologic Pattern
Etiologies and Clinical Management
AH-5: Not Otherwise Specified
Radiologic Pattern
Etiologies and Clinical Management
Imaging of the Postoperative Patient
Imaging of Ventriculostomy Tubes
Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy
Summary
References
Part XIII: Neuroanatomical Brain Atlas
64: Neuroanatomical Atlas of Key Presurgical and Cognitive Eloquent Cortex Regions
Introduction
Key Clinical Brodmann Areas: Neuroanatomical and Cognitive Correlates
Inferior Frontal Gyrus
Functional Role
Superior Temporal Gyrus
Functional Role
Middle Frontal Gyrus/Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
Functional Role
Superior Frontal Gyrus
Functional Role
Precentral Gyrus
Functional Role
Supplementary Motor Area
Functional Role
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Functional Role
Posterior Cingulate Cortex
Functional Role
Anterior Cingulate
Functional Role
Cerebellum (Hand Movement)
Functional Role
Inferior Parietal Lobule
Functional Role
Hippocampus: Medial Middle Temporal Gyrus
Functional Role
Transverse Temporal Gyrus
Functional Role
Fusiform Gyrus
Functional Role
Visual Cortex
Functional Role
Ventral Occipitotemporal Cortex (VOTC)
Functional Role
References
65: Normal Anatomic Atlas of Common White Matter Tracts Using DTI
DTI Atlas
66: fMRI Paradigms
Introduction
Sentence Completion Paradigm
Paradigm Description
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
English
Russian
Spanish
Italian
Vietnamese
Gibberish (Rest Condition):
Word Generation Paradigm
Paradigm Description
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
Verb Generation Paradigm
Paradigm Description
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
Language Rhyming Paradigm
Paradigm Description
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
Motor Task Paradigm
Paradigm Description
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
Hand Movement
Foot/Toe Movement
Tongue Movement
Lip Movement
Visual Task Paradigm
Paradigm Description
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
Adapting Tasks to Patient’s Functional Status:
Scene Encoding and Recognition Paradigm
Paradigm Description
Encoding
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
Recognition
Paradigm Parameters
Paradigm Instructions
References
Index