Cover
Title Page
Copyright page
Contents Page
Acknowledgements
Conventions
Credits
Abstract
Özet
Chapter 1
Introduction
Introduction to the city, from Edessa to Urfa
Figure 1.1. General map of the area, with the location of Urfa
The citadel in previous studies
Figure 1.2. General map of Urfa, with the location of the citadel. © Google Earth
Medieval fortifications in the Near East: a personal itinerary from Shayzar to Urfa
Figure 1.3. Urfa city walls and citadel. After Niebuhr 1774-1778, 2: Pl. LI
Figure 1.4. General view of the citadel, from the N. Photo Tarducci
Figure 1.5. General view of the citadel, from the NE. Photo Tarducci
Figure 1.6. General view of the citadel, from the S. Photo Reali
Figure 1.7. The ditch on the eastern side, from the S
Figure 1.8. The present ascent to the gate of the citadel, from the NW
Figure 1.9. Modern circulation paths around the citadel, with Balıklıgöl park and the minaret of Maqām al-Khalīl on the right
The project: aim, methodology and the presentation of the results
Part 1
The fortification of the citadel: the written sources
Building and re-building: a summary of events
Chapter 2
Edessa and its fortifications in Byzantine times (6th-11th centuries)
The age of Justinian
The 7th century
The siege of Edessa of 944 and the translatio of the mandylion to Constantinople
The second half of the 10th century
The 11th century events
Figure 2.1. George Maniakes and the ‘Saracens’ fighting in Edessa: illumination in the chronicle of John Skylitzes (Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Vitr. 26-2, f. 205r – Imágen propiedad de la Biblioteca Nacional de España)
Bibliography
Chapter 3
The citadels and the city walls in the Syriac sources
The first millennium: of walls and floods
The second millennium: Turks and Crusaders
Bibliography
Primary sources
Chapter 4
Edessa in Armenian sources
Appendix: Descriptions of Edessa’s fortifications in Matthew’s Chronicle
Bibliography
Chapter 5
The citadel of al-Ruhā’ in the Arabic sources: an overview
The early Islamic period (7th-10th centuries)
The middle Islamic period (11th-14th centuries)
Bibliography
Chapter 6
The fortifications of Edessa in medieval Latin sources
Concerning the cities of the Persians in the Promised Land, especially Edessa or Roas, its conquest, and the war that the Christians are preparing
Appendix: ‘The cities of the Persians in the Promised Land, especially Edessa or Roas, its conquest, and the war that the Christians are preparing’ (1146)
Bibliography
Chapter 7
Ruhā in the Persian sources: an elusive presence
Bibliography
Chapter 8
The citadel of Urfa in the Ottoman written sources
Introduction
A note on terminology and sources
Before the Ottomans
In the 16th century
In the 17th century
In the 18th and 19th centuries
Table 1.
Bibliography
Part 2
The inscriptions from the citadel
Chapter 9
Notes on some Greek inscriptions from Edessa
Figure 9.1. Urfa, Harran Gate: Greek inscription, detail. From the S
Figure 9.3. Greek inscription no. 2
Figure 9.2. Eastern curtain, interior, from the W: location of Greek inscription no. 2
Figure 9.5. Greek inscription no. 3
Figure 9.4. Southern curtain, interior, from the N: location of Greek inscription no. 3
Bibliography
Chapter 10
The Arabic inscriptions of the citadel of al-Ruhā’ (Urfa/Şanlıurfa)
Abbasids
Figure 10.1. General map of the citadel, with location of the inscriptions discussed in Ch. 10
Figure 10.2. The eastern column, from the N
Figure 10.3. The Arabic inscription no. 1 carved on the eastern column
Mamluks
Figure 10.4. Southern curtain, general view of the eastern part of inscription no. 2, from the S
Figure 10.5. Southern curtain, general view of the western part of inscription no. 2, from the SE
Aq Qoyunlu
Figure 10.6. Inscription no. 2: detail of first part
Figure 10.7. Inscription no. 2: detail of central part
Figure 10.8. Inscription no. 2: detail of last part
Figure 10.9. Northern curtain, inscription no. 3. Photo E. Reali
Figure 10.11. Recognisable symbol inside the medallion (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
Figure 10.12. Tughra of Uzun Ḥasan (from Sözen 1981: frontispiece)
Figure 10.10. Inscription no. 4. Photo E. Reali
Figure 10.13. Tower 2, inscription no. 5. Photo E. Reali

Figure 10.14. Northern curtain, inscription no. 5 (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
Figure 10.15. Mārdīn, symbol/tughra of Uzun Ḥasan on the tower of the citadel (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
Figure 10.16. Mārdīn, symbol/tughra of Uzun Ḥasan on the mosque minaret (drawing by R. Giunta, 2016)
Table 1. Inscriptions of Abū’l-Naṣr Ḥasan in the Anatolian area.
Ottomans
Table 2. Main formulaic elements of inscriptions of Abū’l-Naṣr Ḥasan in the Anatolian area.
Figure 10.17. Northern curtain, inscription no. 6
Figure 10.18. Eastern curtain, block from inscription no. 6, final part
Figure 10.19. Photographic reconstruction of inscription no. 6 (R. Giunta)
Figure 10.21. Epigraphic cartouche no. 8, west of inscription no. 6
Figure 10.20. Tower 3, Inscription no. 7
Figure 10.22. Epigraphic band between two epigraphic cartouches. © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6607, detail
Other
Figure 10.23. Southern curtain, epigraphic block no. 9, from the S
Figure 10.24. Epigraphic block no. 9. Photo L. Tarducci
Figure 10.25. Southern curtain, epigraphic block no. 10, reused upside down
Figure 10.26. Epigraphic block no. 10
Bibliography
Figure 10.27. Gate to the citadel, interior, from the E © Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6606, detail
Table 3. Inscriptions of al-Ruhā’ in chronological order (those of the city in italics on grey background).
Part 3
The Fortification of the Citadel: the Material Evidence
The archaeological analysis
The site
Field-work methodology
Presentation of the results
Chapter 11
The material evidence: Period 1 (post 3rd-6th centuries?)
Chronology
Figure 11.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 1
Figure 11.2. Western city wall, remains of gate IV, from the W
Figure 11.3. Western city wall, gate IV, detail of dressing
Figure 11.4. Southern city wall, remains west of Bab Harran, from the S
Figure 11.5. Southern city wall, tower west of Bab Harran, from the E
Figure 11.6. Western city wall, remains of tower north of Balıklıgöl park, from the S
Figure 11.7. Southern city wall, Harran gate, from the S
The archaeological analysis (Figure 11.1)
Figure 11.8. Wall US 446 (A. 1), behind Tower 3 and entrance to the internal passage. From the S
Figure 11.9. Tower 1: remains of the western city wall (US 500, A. 2) abutted by later structures, from the N
Figure 11.10. Eastern wall, south corner (US 200, A. 3), with cuts in the rock. From the NE
Figure 11.11. Remains of structure US 243 (A. 4) on the northern front. From the W
Figure 11.12. Structure US 363 (A. 18), northern front. From the N
Figure 11.13. Eastern column with Syriac inscription (A. 17), from the N
Figure 11.14. Building N, general sketch plan with Stratigraphic Units
Figure 11.15. Building N, western wall (US 3000, Ph. 2, A. 11), from the W
Figure 11.16. Building N, western wall (US 3000, Ph. 2, A. 11), from the S
Figure 11.17. Tower 4, level 2, wall US 716 (Ph. 3, A. 12), from the E
Figure 11.18. Tower 4, level 2, wall US 716 (Ph. 3, A. 12), detail of internal face, from the W
Figure 11.19. Tower 4, level 1 (Ph. 4, A. 13), SE corner, facing E
© Şanılurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü
Figure 11.20. Tower 4, level 1, US 718 (Ph. 4, A. 13), from the N. Photo C. Tavernari
Figure 11.21. Tower 4, level 1, stairs US 720 (Ph. 4, A. 13), from the NE. Photo C. Tavernari
Chapter 12
The material evidence: Period 2 (post 6th-11th centuries?)
Chronology
Figure 12.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 2
Figure 12.2. Tower L1 (left) and L2 (right) from the NW
The archaeological analysis (Figure 12.1)
Figure 12.3. The southern front, with the ditch cut into the rock, from the W. The line indicates the hypothetical depth of ditch in Period 2
Figure 12.4 Turret 8, from the E, standing on the very edge of the vertical walls of the ditch
Figure 12.5. The ditch on the northern side, turning north toward the city. From the W
Figure 12.6. Turret 9 abutting later structures of Period 5, from the SE
Figure 12.7. Towers L1 and L2, general sketch plan with Stratigraphic Units
Figure 12.8. Tower L1, from the S
Figure 12.9. The northern ditch, from the NE
Figure 12.10. Northern ditch, detail
Figure 12.11. The pillar of Period 3 or 4
Spolia in Tower L1: a preliminary note
Figure 12.12. The counterscarp, south-eastern corner of the ditch, from the NW
Figure 12.13. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 1
Figure 12.15. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 3
Figure 12.17. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 5
Figure 12.18. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 6
Figure 12.14. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 2
Figure 12.16. Tower L1, core: decorated fragment no. 4
Chapter 13
The material evidence: Period 3 (late 11th-12th centuries?)
Chronology
Figure 13.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 3
Figure 13.2. The lower citadel, Bay Kapısı, from the S
Figure 13.4. Lower citadel, Bay Kapısı, round tower, detail of masonry. From the N
Figure 13.3. Lower citadel, Bay Kapısı, round tower with Armenian inscription. From the E
Figure 13.5. Harran, citadel, south-western curtain. From the S
The archaeological analysis (Figure 13.1)
Figure 13.6. Southern ditch with pillar, from the E
Figure 13.8. Southern front, Turret 12 (rebuilding Ph. 2, A. 23), from the S
Figure 13.7. Fragment of a wall behind the curtain (Ph. 2, A. 22), from the E
Figure 13.9. Space between L1 and L2: US 1003 (right, Ph. 2, A. 34) abutted by US 1011 (left, P. 4, Ph. 7, A. 46). From the S
Figure 13.10. Space between L1 and L2: US 1003, detail (Ph. 2, A. 34). From the S
Figure 13.11. Wall US 3004 (Ph. 2, A. 35). From the SE
Chapter 14
The material evidence: Period 4 (13th-14th centuries)
Figure 14.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 4
Chronology
The archaeological analysis (Figure 14.1)
Figure 14.2. The rebuilding of the southern curtain of Period 4 (Ph. 2, A. 37-38) cuts off the earlier alignment and Tower 7. From the S
Figure 14.3. Southern curtain: the different alignment of the substructure (A. 37) and of the superstructure (A. 38). From the W
Figure 14.4. Southern curtain. Scarped wall US 16 (Ph. 2, A. 38), from the S
Figure 14.5. Southern curtain, arrow-loop US 12 (Ph. 2, A. 38), from the N-E
Figure 14.6. Southern curtain, interior: remains of brackets (Ph. 2, A. 38), from the N
Figure 14.7. Southern curtain: curtain building with inscription (Ph. 4, A. 39) and complex M behind (Ph. 3, A. 40). From the S. Photo E. Reali
Figure 14.8. Complex M, wall US 2021 (Ph. 4, A. 40), running N-S. From the S.
Figure 14.9. Complex M, wall US 2021 (Ph. 4, A. 40), from the W
Figure 14.10. Complex M, western boundary wall US 2009 (Ph. 4, A. 40), from the W
Figure 14.12. Complex M, SW corner of internal space, with corbel (Ph. 4, A. 40). From the NE
Figure 14.13. Complex M, level 2: P. 4 (?) and P. 5, A. 61. From the E
Figure 14.11. Complex M, sketch of southern wall of internal space. Level 1: P. 4, Ph. 4, A. 40. Level 2: P. 5?
Figure 14.14. The blind recess in the southern wall of the internal space (Ph. 4, A. 40), from the N
Figure 14.15. Sketch plan showing the rebuilding of the northern curtain (US 179) bonded to the internal wall US 180 (Ph. 4, A. 41)
Figure 14.16. The rebuilding of the northern curtain (US 179) bonded to the internal wall US 180 (Ph. 4, A. 41), from the NE
Figure 14.17. Internal wall US 180 (P. 4, Ph. 4, A. 41) and its rebuilding US 181 (P. 5, A. 60). From the E
Figure 14.18. Tower 4, Level 1, plan with stratigraphic units
Figure 14.20. Tower 4, interior, Level 1. North-western arrow-loop (US 732, Ph. 5, A. 42), from the S. Photo C. Tavernari
Figure 14.21. Tower 4, interior, Level 1. North-eastern arrow-loop (US 730, Ph. 5, A. 42), from the SE
Figure 14.19. Tower 4, interior, Level 1. North-eastern casemate (US 727, Ph. 5, A. 42), from the S.
© Şanlurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü
Figure 14.22. Tower 4, interior, Level 1: the vaulting system before restoration (Ph. 5, A. 42), from the N. © Şanlurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü
Figure 14.23. Curtain US 303 (Ph. 5, A. 43), from the N
Figure 14.24. Curtain US 303 and arrow-loop US 356 (Ph. 5, A. 43), from the NE
Figure 14.25. Foundation of curtain US 223 (Ph. 5, A. 44), from the NW
Figure 14.26. Tower 3, north-eastern corner, before recent collapse. From Hellenkemper 1976, Pl. 5B
Figure 14.27. Space between L1 and L2, wall US 1011 (Ph. 7, A. 46). From the SW
Figure 14.28. Space between L1 and L2, vault US 1013 (Ph. 7, A. 46). From the W
Figure 14.29. Curtain US 3010 (Ph. 8, A. 47), from the S
Figure 14.30. Vault US 3012 (Ph. 8, A. 47), from the E
Figure 14.31. Harran, citadel, south-western curtain, from the S
Figure 14.32. Rum Kale, western front, Tower 3, from the N
Chapter 15
The material evidence: Period 5 (15th century)
Chronology
Figure 15.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Period 5
The archaeological analysis (Figure 15.1)
Figure 15.2. Eastern front (US 31 and 122, Ph. 2, A. 49), the irregularity of the courses
Figure 15.3. Eastern front (Ph. 2, A. 49), arrow-loop US 118, interior
Figure 15.4. Eastern front, interior (Ph. 2, A. 49), the niche of arrow-loop US 112
Figure 15.5. Eastern front (Ph. 2, A. 49), detail of US 30
Figure 15.6. Northern front (Ph. 3, A. 50), general view of curtain US 555, with inscription
Figure 15.7. Northern front (Ph. 3, A. 50), general view after restoration.
© Şanlurfa Kültūr Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü (photo Cihat Kürkçüoğlu)
Figure 15.8. Northern front (Ph. 3, A. 50), US 567
Figure 15.9. Northern front, Turret 5 (Ph. 4, A. 54), detail of the lower courses
Figure 15.10. Northern front, Turret 5 (Ph. 4, A. 54), with arrow-loop US 221
Figure 15.11. Northern front, Tower 1 (Ph. 4, A. 58), arrow-loop US 518, interior
Figure 15.12. Northern front, Tower 1, from the N (Ph. 5, A. 65; on the right a portion of Ph. 4, A. 58)
Figure 15.13. Northern front, Tower 2, from the N (Ph. 5, A. 66-67), with inscription
Figure 15.14. Northern front, western part, from the NW (G.A. 4)
Figure 15.15. Internal area, A. 60, detail of US 181, from the E
Chapter 16
The material evidence: Period 6 (16th century)
Figure 16.1. General map of the citadel with distribution of Phases and Activities in Periods 6 and 7
Chronology
Figure 16.2. Northern curtain west of present gate to the citadel, from the N
© Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6607
16.3. Gate to the citadel, interior, from the E
© Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6606
Figure 16.4. Tower 4, north-eastern corner: sculpted elements (Ph. 2, A. 68). From the NE
The archaeological analysis (Figure 16.1)
Figure 16.5. Entrance system, with Tower 4, from the N
Figure 16.6. Gate and Tower 4. From the W. Photo L. Tarducci
Figure 16.7. Tower 4, from the NE
Figure 16.8. Tower 4, brackets for machicolation box. From the W
Figure 16.9. Northern curtain west of present gate to the citadel, from the N
© Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6607, detail
Figure 16.10. Decorative element in US 314 (Ph. 2, A. 70), from the NE
Figure 16.11. Decorative elements in US 330 (Ph. 2, A. 70), from the N
Chapter 17
The material evidence: Period 7 (17th century)
The archaeological analysis (Figure 16.1)
Figure 17.1. Tower 3 in 1919, from the NW.
© Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6605, detail
Figure 17.2. Tower 3, rebuilt, from the NW
Figure 17.3. Tower 3 with inscription, from the N
Chapter 18
The material evidence: Periods 8 (18th-19th centuries)and 9 (post Ottoman to the present)
Period 8 (18th-19th centuries)
Period 9 (post-Ottoman-present)
Figure 18.1. Gate and access system in 1919.
© Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, neg. EA.CA.6609, detail
Chapter 19
The masonry typology
Figure 19.1. General view of the quarry on the hill south of the citadel. From the W
Figure 19.2. The quarry on the hill south of the citadel, from the W. Detail
Figure 19.3. The quarry on the hill south of the citadel. Detail
Table 19.1. List of masonry types
Figure 19.4. Type 4, US 1001, from the S
Figure 19.5. Type 4, US 1001, detail
Figure 19.6. Type 4, US 1001, core, from the S
Figure 19.7. Type 5, Turret 8, US 1, from the S
Figure 19.8. Type 5, Turret 8, US 1, detail
Figure 19.9. Type 21, US 344, from the N
Figure 19.11. Type 21, US 416, from the NW
Figure 19.10. Type 21, US 344, detail
Figure 19.12. Type 6, US 245, from the W
Figure 19.14. Type 6, US 65, from the S
Figure 19.13. Type 6, US 245, detail
Figure 19.15. Type 6, US 65, detail with mason’s mark
Figure 19.16. Type 2, US 303, from the NW
Figure 19.17. Type 2, US 303, detail
Figure 19.18. Type 22, US 406, from the N
Figure 19.19. Type 3, US 117, from the E
Figure 19.20. Type 3, US 30
Figure 19.22. Type 16, US 549, from the N
Figure 19.21. Type 3, US 30, detail
Figure 19.23. Type 16, US 549, detail
Figure 19.24. Type 19, US 337, from the N
Figure 19.25. Type 19, US 337, detail
Figure 19.26. Type 19, US 337, detail
Figure 19.27. Type 10, US 127, from the E
Figure 19.28. Type 10, US 127, detail
Figure 19.29. Type 10, US 127, detail
Figure 19.30. Type 10, US 127, detail
Figure 19.31. Type 1, US 5, from the S
Figure 19.32. Type 1, US 415, from the NE
Figure 19.33. Type 1, US 415, detail
Figure 19.34. Type 15, US 420, from the W
Figure 19.36. Type 17, US 410, detail
Figure 19.35. Type 17, US 410, from the E
Chapter 20
Conclusions
The constructional history: a summary
Military architecture, building techniques and beyond
Plates
Appendix
Bibliography
Back cover
