Fretting Wear and Fretting Fatigue: Fundamental Principles and Applications

Cover
Fretting Wear and Fretting Fatigue
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Brief history of the subject
Early stages
Initial milestones in the understanding of the mechanics of fretting
Crucial steps toward a better understanding of fretting wear and fretting fatigue
State of the art at the beginning of the new millennium
Acknowledgments
References
Introduction to fretting fundamentals
Fretting within a wider context of tribology
Fretting wear
Fretting fatigue
Mitigating fretting damage
References
Contact geometry
Friction and fretting regimes
References
Transition criteria
Mapping approaches
References
Early developments
Basic test configurations
Fretting wear tests and analytical methods
Fretting fatigue tests and analytical methods
Combined fretting wear and fatigue approaches
References
Theoretical models
Wear mechanisms and phenomenological models of fretting wear
Fatigue crack initiation and propagation
Numerical models
Wear models using mechanistic approaches and advanced FEM and BEM simulations
Advanced numerical methods for crack initiation and propagation in fretting
Nano- and mesoscale models
References
The role of tribologically transformed structures and debris in fretting of metals
Overview
Wear in both sliding and fretting-Contrasts in the transport of species into and out of the contacts
The nature of oxide debris formed in fretting
Formation of oxide debris in fretting-The role of oxygen supply and demand
Oxygen supply-Contact size
Oxygen supply-Environmental oxygen concentration
Oxygen supply-Fretting in liquids
Oxygen demand-Fretting frequency
Tribo-sintering of oxide debris and glaze formation
Microstructural damage-Tribologically transformed structures in fretting
The critical role of debris in fretting: Godets third body approach
Godets third body approach revisited: Rate-determining processes in fretting wear
Wear in the steady state
The first potential RDP: Debris formation
The second potential RDP: Debris transport out of the contact
The third potential RDP: Oxygen transport into the contact
Implications of the RDP concept
Conclusion
References
Friction energy wear approach
Friction energy wear approach
Basics regarding friction energy wear approach
Fretting loop analysis and related friction energy parameters
Archard vs friction energy wear concept: The influence of the coefficient of friction
Friction energy wear concept
Third body theory (TBT)
Contact oxygenation concept (COC)
Influence of contact loadings regarding friction energy wear rate
Influence of the normal load
Influence of the sliding frequency
Influence of the contact size
Influence of the sliding amplitude
Extended wear coefficient approach: A power law formulation
Influence of ambient conditions
Influence of temperature
Influence of lubricated (grease) interface
Surface wear modeling using the friction energy density approach
Modeling the fretting worn profiles taking into account the dynamical evolution of debris layer
Multiphysics fretting wear modeling including friction energy density, third body, and contact oxygenation process
Predicting the coating durability using the friction energy density parameter
Conclusions
References
Lubrication approaches
Introduction
Parameter definition
Amplitude ratio
Damage ratio
Oil lubrication
Influence of viscosity
Influence of oscillation frequency
Mechanism for fretting wear reduction in oil lubrication
Grease lubrication
Influence of base oil viscosity
Influence of worked penetration
Influence of oscillation frequency
Mechanism for fretting wear reduction in grease lubrication
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Impact of roughness
Introduction
Contact of rough surfaces
Stress distribution in rough contact
Effective contact area
Coefficient of friction
Bearing capacity
Surface anisotropy and orientation
Transition between partial and gross slip
Impact of surface roughness on fretting wear
Friction in lubricated contact conditions
Energy dissipated at the interfaces for smooth and rough surfaces
Impact of surface roughness on crack initiation
Dynamics of surface roughness evolution in fretting contact
Measurement of fretting wear using surface metrology
References
Materials aspects in fretting
Physical processes impacting materials in industrial fretting contacts
Factors affecting fretting behavior of different materials groups
Materials behavior vs fretting regimes
Materials behavior vs fretting contact load and geometry
Materials behavior vs fretting frequency
Materials behavior vs fretting temperature and environment
Materials hardness, stiffness, yield strength vs fretting behavior
Materials engineering approaches to the mitigation of fretting wear
Thermo-chemical surface treatments
Shot-peening treatment
Laser surface treatment
Application of coatings to mitigate fretting wear
Thermally sprayed coatings
Hard coatings
Adhesion of hard coatings
Soft metal coatings
Advanced coating designs and architectures
Multicomponent and composite coatings
Multilayered and superlattice coatings
Adaptive composite coatings
Duplex coatings
Concluding remarks
References
Contact size in fretting
Introduction
Experimental techniques for nano-/microscale fretting and reciprocating wear testing
Contact geometry effects
Pile-up
Contact size effects on deformation vs fracture
Indentation size effects
Lateral size effects
Size effects on yield and fracture in coatings
Contact size and friction
Case studies
MEMS-Silicon and thin hard carbon coatings on silicon
Coatings to protect silicon-Thin hard carbon films
Biomedical materials
DLC/steel
Conclusions
References
Partial slip problems in contact mechanics
Introduction
Global and pointwise friction
Global and local elasticity solutions
Half-plane contacts: Fundamentals
Conditions for full stick
Effects of tension and moments
Summary of full stick conditions
Sharp-edged (complete) contact: Fundamentals
Conditions for full stick
Partial slip of incomplete contacts
An introduction to corrective slip: The Cattaneo-Mindlin solution
Effect of bulk tension, cyclic loading, and change in normal load
Dislocation-based solutions
Introductory problem
Steady-state solution: Constant normal load
Steady-state solution: Varying normal load
Application to Hertzian contact
Asymptotic approaches
Summary
Eigenfunctions for the Williams wedge solution
Size of the permanent stick zone for a Hertz geometry with large remote tensions
References
Fundamental aspects and material characterization
Introduction
Mechanical models and metrics
The crack analogue approach
Modification of the crack analogue
Material testing and characterization
Looking ahead
References
Fretting fatigue design diagram
Equations for estimating fretting fatigue strength based on strength of materials approach
Fracture mechanics approach for fretting fatigue life prediction
Fretting fatigue crack path prediction
Fretting fatigue life prediction
Fretting-contact-induced crack closure
Fretting fatigue design diagram based on stresses on the contact surface
Summary
References
Further reading
Life estimation methods
Fretting fatigue features and fretting processes
Fretting fatigue features
Fretting fatigue processes
Fretting fatigue crack initiation limit
Crack initiation criteria using stress singularity parameter
Crack initiation criteria using critical distance stress theory
High-cycle fretting fatigue life estimations considering fretting wear
Process of fretting fatigue life analysis
Fretting wear analysis
Fracture mechanics analysis
Fretting fatigue life analysis
Low-cycle fretting fatigue life estimations without considering fretting wear
Application of failure analysis of several accidents and design analyses
Failure of bolted joint hubs in gear transmissions
Explanation of the accident situation
Failure analysis of accident
Failure of axle bolts in roller coasters
Explanation of the accident situation
Investigation of the cause of the accident
Fatigue life analysis of connecting rod bolts
Fretting fatigue strength improvements using stress release grooves
Conclusions
References
Further reading
Effect of surface roughness and residual stresses
Introduction
Effect of surface roughness on fretting fatigue
Numerical studies of the surface roughness effect on fretting fatigue
Experimental analyses of the surface roughness effect
Some general considerations
Residual stresses in fretting
Usual surface treatments
Stability of residual stresses
Modeling the effect of surface roughness on fretting fatigue
Analytical approaches
Numerical approaches
Residual stress modeling in fretting fatigue
References
Advanced numerical modeling techniques for crack nucleation and propagation
Introduction
Theoretical background
Crack nucleation
Mechanics of crack nucleation
Crack nucleation criteria
Critical plane approach
Findley parameter
Stress invariant approach
Crossland parameter
Fretting specific parameter
Ruiz parameter
Continuum damage mechanics approach
Lemaitre damage model
Crack propagation
Mechanisms of crack propagation
Methodologies to estimate propagation lives
Linear elastic fracture mechanics
Cyclic cohesive zone models (as an alternative for when LEFM assumptions are not satisfied)
Numerical modeling
Crack initiation models
FE models
Implementation of damage models
CP approach methodology
Crack propagation models
LEFM implementation
Implementation of cyclic cohesive zone models
Crack nucleation prediction
Crack nucleation location
Initial crack orientation
Nucleation life estimation
Effect of out-of-phase loading
Effect of stress gradient and stress averaging on life
Crack propagation lives estimation
LEFM and empirical laws (such as Paris Law)
Cyclic cohesive zone models (unifying initiation and propagation phases)
Summary and conclusions
Way forward
References
A thermodynamic framework for treatment of fretting fatigue
Introduction
Fretting fatigue models-background
Surface damage from irreversible thermodynamics framework perspective
Thermodynamically based CDM
CDM analysis of fretting fatigue crack nucleation with provision for size effect
Methodology and approach
Fretting contact stress formulation and analysis
Crack initiation parameter for CDM analysis
Averaging zone identification
Crack nucleation life by CDM
Fretting subsurface stresses with provision for surface roughness
Formulation of rough contact problem
Surface tractions and subsurface stress distribution
CDM-based prediction of fretting fatigue crack nucleation life considering surface roughness
Numerical procedure
Critical tangential force prediction
Crack nucleation life prediction
Conclusion and remarks
References
Aero engines
Introduction
Examples of engine events
Southwest Airlines flight 1380, April 17, 2018
RB211 Trent 892 turbofan engine Boeing 777, A6-EMM, January 31, 2001
Accident to the AIRBUS A380-861 with Engine Alliance GP7270 engines, September 30, 2017
Areas subject to fretting
Dovetail blade roots
Derivation of stresses
Design basis for a bladed disc
Fir-tree blade roots
Splines-Contact fatigue, notch fatigue, and wear
Flanges
Mitigation measures
Surface coatings
Surface treatment (residual stress)
Design criteria-Academic perspective
Short crack arrest
Contact asymptotics
Industrial applications perspective
Design and assessment approaches
Edge of contact stress prediction/fracture mechanics approaches
Bulk or net section stresses
Subcomponent test
Specimen test
Conclusions
References
Electrical connectors
Introduction
Effects of fretting on electrical contact resistance
Effects of materials on fretting in electrical contacts
Effects of contact load, frequency of motion, and slip amplitude on fretting in electrical contacts
Endurance of electrical contact resistance under fretting
Discussions
Fretting in industrial applications
Structure of connector
Connector and contact force
Connector materials
Fretting test with real-world products
Connectors with fretting occurrence
Case analysis of fretting damage
Alternative solutions for fretting in electrical contacts
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Biomedical devices
Introduction
Common biomaterials
Metallic biomaterials
Cobalt-based alloys
Titanium and titanium-based alloys
Iron-based alloys
Ceramic biomaterials
Alumina and alumina composites
Silicon nitride
Zirconium and zirconium composites
The biological environment
Compound tribocorrosion degradation mechanisms of materials in the biological environment
Corrosion
Electrochemistry of corrosion
Passivity of metallic biomaterials
Mechanisms of fretting corrosion
In vitro assessment of fretting corrosion within the biological environment
The role of contact condition
The role of the material contact couple
The role of environment
In vivo fretting corrosion within the biological environment
Clinical implications of fretting corrosion
Orthopedics/trauma
Modular taper interfaces
Spinal instrumentation
Dental
Cardiovascular
Conclusions
References
Nuclear power systems
Introduction
Critical safety components of the nuclear reactor that are susceptible to fretting wear damage
Methodology for predicting fretting damage of nuclear structural components
Wear energy in impact-sliding fretting
Nonlinear response of the fretting tribo-system under random excitation
Fretting wear of nuclear steam generator tubes-Effects of process parameters
Effect of the tube-support radial clearance
Effect of temperature
Effect of water chemistry
Effect of materials and contact configuration/support geometry
Fretting Wear of nuclear fuel assembly-Effect of process parameters
Effect of the process parameters controlling the Wear energy
Effect of temperature
Effect of excitation mode
Effect of surface treatment
Concluding remarks and future outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Rolling bearings
Introduction
False brinelling vs true brinelling
Bearing applications at risk of false brinelling
Mechanisms of false brinelling in rolling bearings
Test methods for assessing lubricant protection against fretting wear in bearings
Progression of false brinelling damage
Influence of lubricant properties and contact conditions on false brinelling
Effect of lubricant properties
Effect of oscillating amplitude
Possible measures to mitigate false brinelling risk in rolling bearings
Fretting in nonworking surfaces of bearings
References
Overhead conductors
Introduction
Traditional approaches
Poffenberger-Swart formula
Endurance limit approach
Cumulative damage method
Recent results based on fatigue testing of conductors
Resonant fatigue test bench
Effect of the tensile load
Effect of the H/w parameter
Effect of elastomeric clamps
Effect of temperature
Recent progress toward a multiscale fatigue analysis
Motivation
Experiments
Methodology for fatigue life prediction
Evaluation of the methodology
References
Marine risers
Introduction
Design methodology for fretting in flexible marine riser
Experimental characterization of pressure armor material
Global riser loading conditions and analysis
Global riser analysis
Global-local loading conditions
Global riser axial tension
Global riser curvature
Local nub-groove fretting analysis
Fretting wear-fatigue predictions
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Index