Foundations of Decision Analysis, Global Edition

Cover ... 1
Title ... 2
Copyright ... 3
Brief Contents ... 4
Contents ... 6
Chapter 1: Introduction to Quality Decision Making ... 24
1.1 Introduction ... 24
1.2 Normative Vs. Descriptive ... 24
1.3 Declaring a Decision ... 27
1.4 Thought Vs. Action ... 30
1.5 What is a Decision? ... 31
1.6 Decision Vs. Outcome ... 33
1.7 Clarity of Action ... 36
1.8 What is a Good Decision? ... 37
1.9 Summary ... 41
Key Terms ... 42
Problems ... 43
Chapter 2: Experiencing a Decision ... 45
2.1 Introduction ... 45
2.2 Analysis of a Decision: The Thumbtack and the Medallion Example ... 45
2.3 Lessons Learned from the Thumbtack and Medallion Example ... 54
2.4 Summary ... 58
Key Terms ... 58
Appendix A: Results of the Thumbtack Demonstration ... 59
Problems ... 60
Chapter 3: Clarifying Values ... 64
3.1 Introduction ... 64
3.2 Value in Use and Value in Exchange ... 64
3.3 Values Around a Cycle of Ownership ... 68
3.4 Summary ... 73
Key Terms ... 74
Problems ... 75
Chapter 4: Precise Decision Language ... 78
4.1 Introduction ... 78
4.2 Lego-Like Precision ... 78
4.3 Precise Decision Language ... 79
4.4 Experts and Distinctions ... 80
4.5 Mastery ... 82
4.6 Creating Your Own Distinctions ... 83
4.7 Footnote ... 83
4.8 Summary ... 83
Key Terms ... 83
Problems ... 84
Chapter 5: Possibilities ... 85
5.1 Overview ... 85
5.2 Creating Distinctions ... 85
5.3 The Possibility Tree ... 88
5.4 Measures ... 95
5.5 Sumary ... 97
Key Terms ... 98
Problems ... 99
Chapter 6: Handling Uncertainty ... 101
6.1 Introduction ... 101
6.2 Describing Degree of Belief by Probability ... 101
6.3 The Probability Tree ... 105
6.4 Several Degrees of Distinction ... 114
6.5 Multiple Degrees of Distinction ... 114
6.6 Probability Trees Using Multiple Distinctions ... 117
6.7 Adding Measures to the Probability Tree ... 124
6.8 Multiple Measures ... 132
6.9 Summary ... 134
Key Terms ... 135
Appendix A: The Chain Rule for Distinctions: Calculating Elemental Probabilities ... 136
Appendix B: Let’s Make a Deal Commentary ... 138
Appendix C: Further Discussion Related to the Example: At Least One Boy ... 141
Problems ... 142
Chapter 7: Relevance ... 146
7.1 Introduction ... 146
7.2 Relevance with Simple Distinctions ... 146
7.3 Is Relevance Mutual? ... 147
7.4 Relevance Diagrams ... 149
7.5 Alternate Asessment Orders ... 153
7.6 Relevance Depends on Knowledge ... 155
7.7 Distinctive Vs. Asociative Logic ... 160
7.8 The Third Factor ... 161
7.9 Multi-Degree Relevance ... 164
7.10 Summary ... 164
Key Terms ... 165
Appendix A: More on Relevance Diagrams and Arrow Reversals ... 166
Problems ... 169
Chapter 8: Rules of Actional Thought ... 179
8.1 Introduction ... 179
8.2 Using Rules for Decision Making ... 179
8.3 The Decision Situation ... 181
8.4 The Five Rules of Actional Thought ... 182
8.5 Summary ... 188
Key Terms ... 189
Problems ... 190
Chapter 9: The Party Problem ... 199
9.1 Introduction ... 199
9.2 The Party Problem ... 199
9.3 Simplifying the Rules: E-Value ... 205
9.4 Understanding the Value of the Party Problem ... 210
9.5 Summary ... 214
Key Terms ... 214
Appendix A ... 215
Problems ... 216
Chapter 10: Using a Value Measure ... 217
10.1 Introduction ... 217
10.2 Money as a Value Measure ... 217
10.3 u-curves ... 220
10.4 Valuing Clairvoyance ... 224
10.5 Jane’s Party Problem ... 228
10.6 Attitudes toward Risk ... 231
10.7 Mary’s Party Problem ... 234
10.8 Summary ... 236
Key Terms ... 236
Problems ... 237
Chapter 11: Risk Attitude ... 240
11.1 Introduction ... 240
11.2 Wealth Risk Attitude ... 240
11.3 Buying and Selling a Deal Around a Cycle of Ownership ... 241
11.4 The Delta Property ... 244
11.5 Risk Odds ... 247
11.6 Delta Property Simplifications ... 252
11.7 Other Forms of Exponential u-Curve ... 254
11.8 Direct Assessment of Risk Tolerance ... 255
11.9 Summary ... 261
Key Terms ... 262
Problems ... 263
Chapter 12: Sensitivity Analysis ... 270
12.1 Introduction ... 270
12.2 Kim’s Sensitivity to Probability of Sunshine ... 270
12.3 Certain Equivalent Sensitivity ... 272
12.4 Value of Clairvoyance Sensitivity to Probability of Sunshine ... 273
12.5 Jane’s Sensitivity to Probability of Sunshine ... 274
12.6 Comparison of Kim’s and Jane’s Value of Clairvoyance Sensitivities ... 275
12.7 Risk Sensitivity Profile ... 277
12.8 Summary ... 279
Key Terms ... 279
Problems ... 280
Chapter 13: Basic Information Gathering ... 288
13.1 Introduction ... 288
13.2 The Value of Information ... 288
13.3 The Acme Rain Detector ... 290
13.4 General Observations on Experiments ... 296
13.5 Asymmetric Experiments ... 300
13.6 Information Gathering Equivalents ... 303
13.7 Summary ... 306
Problems ... 308
Chapter 14: Decision Diagrams ... 315
14.1 Introduction ... 315
14.2 Nodes in the Decision Diagram ... 315
14.3 Arrows in Decision Diagrams ... 316
14.4 Value of Clairvoyance ... 318
14.5 Imperfect Information ... 319
14.6 Decision Tree Order ... 319
14.7 Detector Use Decision ... 320
14.8 Summary ... 323
Key Terms ... 323
Problems ... 324
Chapter 15: Encoding a Probability Distribution on a Measure ... 331
15.1 Introduction ... 331
15.2 Probability Encoding ... 333
15.3 Fractiles of a Probability Distribution ... 339
15.4 Summary ... 347
Key Terms ... 347
Problems ... 348
Answers to Problem 2 ... 349
Chapter 16: From Phenomenon to Asesment ... 350
16.1 Introduction ... 350
16.2 Information Transmission ... 350
16.3 Perception ... 351
16.4 Cognition ... 352
16.5 Motivation ... 356
16.6 Summary ... 356
Key Terms ... 356
Chapter 17: Framing a Decision ... 357
17.1 Introduction ... 357
17.2 Making a Decision ... 357
17.3 Selecting a Frame ... 358
17.4 Summary ... 369
Key Terms ... 369
Problems ... 370
Chapter 18: Valuing Information from Multiple Sources ... 371
18.1 Introduction ... 371
18.2 The Beta Rain Detector ... 371
18.3 Clarifying the Value of Joint Clairvoyance on Two Distinctions ... 378
18.4 Value of Information for Multiple Uncertainties ... 381
18.5 Approaching Clairvoyance with Multiple Acme Detectors ... 386
18.6 Valuing Individually Immaterial Multiple Detectors ... 395
18.7 Summary ... 398
Key Terms ... 399
Problems ... 400
Chapter 19: Options ... 401
19.1 Introduction ... 401
19.2 Contractual and Non-Contractual Options ... 401
19.3 Option Price, Exercise Price, and Option Value ... 402
19.4 Simple Option Analysis ... 403
19.5 Consequences of Failure to Recognize Options ... 406
19.6 Jane’s Party Revisited ... 409
19.7 Value of Clairvoyance as an Option ... 411
19.8 Sequential Information Options ... 412
19.9 Sequential Detector Options ... 415
19.10 Creating Options ... 415
19.11 Summary ... 420
Key Terms ... 420
Problems ... 421
Chapter 20: Detectors with Multiple Indications ... 422
20.1 Introduction ... 422
20.2 Detector with 100 Indications ... 423
20.3 The Continuous Beta Detector ... 440
20.4 Summary ... 446
Key Terms ... 446
Problems ... 447
Chapter 21: Decisions with Influences ... 448
21.1 Introduction ... 448
21.2 Shirley’s Problem ... 448
21.3 Summary ... 463
Key Terms ... 463
Problems ... 464
Chapter 22: The Logarithmic u-Curve ... 465
22.1 Introduction ... 465
22.2 The Logarithmic u-Curve ... 466
22.3 Deals with Large Monetary Prospects for a DeltaPerson ... 470
22.4 Properties of the Logarithmic u-Curve ... 474
22.5 Certain Equivalent of Two Mutually Irrelevant Deal ... 479
22.6 The St. Petersburg Paradox ... 482
22.7 Summary ... 485
Key Terms ... 486
Appendix A: The Logarithmic Function and Its Properties ... 487
Appendix B: The Risk-Aversion Function ... 488
Appendix C: A Student’s Question Following an Economist Article ... 489
Problems ... 494
Chapter 23: The Linear Risk Tolerance u-Curve ... 496
23.1 Introduction ... 496
23.2 Linear Risk Tolerance ... 496
23.3 Summary ... 504
Key Terms ... 504
Appendix A: Derivation of Linear Risk Tolerance u-Curve ... 505
Appendix B: Student’s Problem Using Linear Risk Tolerance u-Curve ... 506
Problems ... 508
Chapter 24: Aproximate Expresions for the Certain Equivalent ... 509
24.1 Introduction ... 509
24.2 Moments of a Measure ... 509
24.3 Central Moments of a Measure ... 513
24.4 Approximating the Certain Equivalent Using First and Second Central Moments ... 514
24.5 Approximating the Certain Equivalent Using Higher Order Moments ... 516
24.6 Cumulants ... 519
24.7 Summary ... 519
Key Terms ... 520
Problems ... 521
Chapter 25: Deterministic and Probabilistic Dominance ... 522
25.1 Introduction ... 522
25.2 Deterministic Dominance ... 522
25.3 First-Order Probabilistic Dominance ... 527
25.4 Second-Order Probabilistic Dominance ... 531
25.5 Dominance for Alternatives in the Party Problem ... 535
25.6 Summary ... 538
Key Terms ... 538
Problems ... 539
Chapter 26: Decisions with Multiple Attributes (1)–Ordering Prospects with Preference and Value Functions ... 540
26.1 Introduction ... 540
26.2 Step 1: Direct Vs. Indirect Values ... 541
26.3 Step 2: Ordering Prospects Characterized by Multiple “Direct Value” Attributes ... 545
26.4 Summary ... 552
Key Terms ... 553
Appendix A: Deriving the Relation Between Increments in x and y as a Function of ? in the Preference Function ... 554
Problems ... 555
Chapter 27: Decisions with Multiple Attributes (2)–Value Functions for Investment Cash Flows: Time Preference ... 556
27.1 Introduction ... 556
27.2 Rules for Evaluating Investment Cash Flows ... 557
27.3 Methods Not Equivalent to the Present Equivalent ... 568
27.4 Cash Flows: A Single Measure ... 571
27.5 Summary ... 571
Key Terms ... 571
Problems ... 572
Chapter 28: Decisions With Multiple Attributes (3)–Preference Probabilities Over Value ... 573
28.1 Introduction ... 573
28.2 Stating Preference Probabilities with Two Attributes ... 574
28.3 Stating Preference Probabilities with a Value Function ... 575
28.4 Stating a u-Curve Over the Value Function ... 575
28.5 The Value Certain Equivalent ... 577
28.6 Other u-Function Approaches ... 579
28.7 Stating a u-Curve Over an Individual Attribute within the Value Function ... 580
28.8 Valuing Uncertain Cash Flows ... 583
28.9 Discussion ... 587
28.10 Summary ... 588
Key Terms ... 588
Problems ... 589
Chapter 29: Betting on Disparate Belief ... 590
29.1 Introduction ... 590
29.2 Betting on Disparate Probabilities ... 590
29.3 Practical Use ... 594
29.4 Summary ... 595
Key Terms ... 595
Problems ... 596
Chapter 30: Learning From Experimentation ... 597
30.1 Introduction ... 597
30.2 Assigning Probability of Head and Tail for the Thumbtack ... 598
30.3 Probability of Heads on Next Two Tosses ... 599
30.4 Probability of Any Number of Heads and Tails ... 600
30.5 Learning from Observation ... 601
30.6 Conjugate Distributions ... 604
30.7 Does Observing a Head Make the Probability of a Head on the Next Toss More Likely? ... 605
30.8 Another Thumbtack Demonstration ... 606
30.9 Summary ... 609
Key Terms ... 609
Problems ... 610
Chapter 31: Auctions and Biding ... 611
31.1 Introduction ... 611
31.2 Another Thumbtack Demonstration ... 611
31.3 Auctions 1 and 3 for a Deltaperson ... 616
31.4 Non-Deltaperson Analysis ... 622
31.5 The Value of the Bidding Opportunity for Auction 2 ... 624
31.6 The Winner’s Curse ... 628
31.7 Summary ... 640
Key Terms ... 641
Problems ... 642
Chapter 32: Evaluating, Scaling, and Sharing Uncertain Deals ... 644
32.1 Introduction ... 644
32.2 Scaling and Sharing Risk ... 644
32.3 Scaling an Uncertain Deal ... 645
32.4 Risk Sharing of Uncertain Deals ... 648
32.5 Optimal Investment in a Portfolio ... 650
32.6 Summary ... 659
Key Terms ... 660
Appendix A: Covariance and Correlation ... 661
Appendix B: Scalar (Dot) Product of Vectors ... 666
Appendix C: 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 Matrix Multiplications and Matrix Inversion ... 667
Problems ... 670
Chapter 33: Making Risky Decisions ... 671
33.1 Introduction ... 671
33.2 A Painful Dilemma ... 671
33.3 Small Probabilities ... 674
33.4 Using Micromort Values ... 674
33.5 Applications ... 676
33.6 Facing Larger Probabilities of Death ... 678
33.7 Summary ... 681
Key Terms ... 681
Problems ... 682
Chapter 34: Decisions with a High Probability of Death ... 684
34.1 Introduction ... 684
34.2 Value Function for Remaining Life Years and Consumption ... 684
34.3 Assigning a u-Curve Over the Value Function ... 687
34.4 Determining Micromort Values ... 690
34.5 Equivalent Perfect Life Probability (EPlP) ... 696
34.6 Summary ... 698
Key Terms ... 698
Appendix A: Mortality Table for 30-Year-Old Male ... 699
Appendix B: Example of a Black Pill Calculation, x = 10,000 ... 702
Appendix C: Example of a White Pill Calculation, x = 10,000 ... 705
Problems ... 708
Chapter 35: Discretizing Continuous Probability Distributions ... 709
35.1 Introduction ... 709
35.2 Equal Areas Method ... 710
35.3 Caution with Discretization ... 714
35.4 Accuracy of 10–50–90 Approximate Method for Equal Areas ... 716
35.5 Moments of Discrete and Continuous Measures ... 719
35.6 Moment Matching Method ... 719
35.7 Summary ... 721
Key Terms ... 721
Appendix A: Rationale for Equal Areas Method ... 722
Problems ... 725
Chapter 36: Solving Decision Problems by Simulation ... 726
36.1 Introduction ... 726
36.2 Using Simulation for Solving Problems ... 726
36.3 Simulating Decisions Having a Single Discrete Distinction ... 727
36.4 Decisions with Multiple Discrete Distinctions ... 730
36.5 Simulating a Measure with a Continuous Distribution ... 733
36.6 Simulating Mutually Irrelevant Distinctions ... 737
36.7 Value of Information with Simulation ... 739
36.8 Simulating Multiple Distinctions with Relevance ... 743
36.9 Summary ... 745
Key Terms ... 745
Problems ... 746
Chapter 37: The Decision Analysis Cycle ... 747
37.1 Introduction ... 747
37.2 The Decision Analysis Cycle ... 747
37.3 The Model Sequence ... 757
37.4 Summary ... 768
Key Terms ... 768
Appendix A: Open Loop and Closed Loop Sensitivity for the Bidding Decision ... 769
Chapter 38: Topics in Organizational Decision Making ... 776
38.1 Introduction ... 776
38.2 Operating to Maximize Value ... 777
38.3 Issues When Operating with Budgets ... 779
38.4 Issues with Incentive Structures ... 780
38.5 A Common Issue: Multiple Specifications Vs. Tradeoffs ... 781
38.6 Need for a Corporate Risk Tolerance ... 782
38.7 Common Motivational Biases in Organizations ... 786
38.8 Summary ... 788
Key Terms ... 788
Problems ... 789
Chapter 39: Coordinating the Decision Making of Large Groups ... 790
39.1 Introduction ... 790
39.2 Issues Contributing to Poor Group Decision Making ... 790
39.3 Classifying Decision Problems ... 792
39.4 Structuring Decision Problems within Organizations ... 795
39.5 Example: The Fifth Generation Corvette ... 800
39.6 Summary ... 803
Key Terms ... 803
Chapter 40: Decisions and Ethics ... 804
40.1 Introduction ... 804
40.2 The Role of Ethics in Decision Making ... 805
40.3 Ethical Distinctions ... 806
40.4 Harming, Stealing, and Truth Telling ... 809
40.5 Ethical Codes ... 812
40.6 Ethical Situations ... 813
40.7 Summary ... 815
Key Terms ... 816
Problems ... 817
Index ... 818
A ... 818
B ... 819
C ... 819
D ... 820
E ... 821
F ... 822
G ... 822
H ... 823
I ... 823
J ... 823
L ... 823
M ... 824
N ... 824
O ... 824
P ... 825
Q ... 826
R ... 827
S ... 827
T ... 828
U ... 828
V ... 829
W ... 830
Z ... 830