Food Security for African Smallholder Farmers

Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Agronomy: Soils and Crop Development
Chapter 1: Decades of Cultivar Development: A Reconciliation of Maize and Bean Breeding Projects and Their Impacts on Food, Nu...
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Maize Cultivar Development and Impacts
1.2.1 Maize Breeding Projects
1.2.1.1 Drought Tolerant Maize and Water Efficient Maize for Africa Projects
1.2.1.2 Improved Maize for African Soils
1.2.1.3 Stress Tolerant Maize for Africa
1.2.1.4 Biofortified Maize for Improved Human Nutrition and TELA Projects
1.2.1.5 Maize Lethal Necrosis Projects
1.2.1.6 Accelerating Genetic Gains Project
1.2.2 Maize Cultivar Adoption and Economic Impacts
1.3 Common Bean Cultivar Development and Impact
1.3.1 Common Bean Breeding Projects
1.3.1.1 Tropical Legumes Projects
1.3.1.2 Accelerated Varietal Improvement Seed Delivery of Legume and Cereal Crops Project
1.3.1.3 Alliance-PABRA Projects
TAAT High Iron Bean Project
Precooked Beans for Food, Nutrition, and Income
1.3.1.4 HarvestPlus Projects (Phases I, II, and III)
1.3.2 Common Bean Cultivar Adoption and Impacts
1.3.2.1 Cultivar Releases in Multiple Countries
1.3.2.2 Bean Cultivar Adoption and Impacts
1.4 Testimonials by Farmers and Other Value Chain Actors
1.5 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Chapter 2: From Soil to Fork: Can Sustainable Intensification Guarantee Food Security for Smallholder Farmers?
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of Current Challenges to Agricultural Food Production in African Smallholder Agriculture
2.2.1 Population Pressure
2.2.2 Unsustainable Farming Practices
2.2.3 Climate Change
2.3 Sustainability in Agriculture
2.4 What Is Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture?
2.5 Sustainable Intensification Concepts and Practices
2.6 Benefits of Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production in African Smallholder Agriculture
2.7 Policies Supporting Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production in African Smallholder Agriculture
2.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Sub-Saharan Africa Smallholder Farmers Agricultural Productivity: Risks and Challenges
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Causes of Low Yield in Smallholder African Farms
3.2.1 Climate Change
3.2.2 Pests and Diseases
3.2.3 Gender Inequality
3.2.4 HIV/AIDS and Pandemics
3.2.5 Lack of Infrastructure
3.2.6 Agriculture Extension Support
3.2.7 Management Practices
3.2.8 Mechanization
3.3 Policy Level Changes Required to Drive Smallholder Productivity
3.3.1 Land Tenure
3.3.2 Farm Labour and Gender Equality
3.3.3 Knowledge Sharing
3.3.4 Communication
3.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Integrated Use of Livestock Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer for Sustainable Agricultural Intensification on Margina...
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Marginal Lands in Current and Future Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa
4.3 The Application and Importance of Agricultural Intensification in Sub-Saharan Africa
4.4 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer: A Key Strategy for Achieving Sustainable Agricultural Intensificati...
4.4.1 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer to Increase Crop Productivity on Marginal Lands in Sub-Saharan Afr...
4.4.2 The Combined Use of Livestock Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer to Enhance Soil Physical Properties in Marginal Lands of S...
4.4.3 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer Enhance Soil Chemical and Biological Properties in Marginal Lands ...
4.4.4 The Integrated Use of Manure and Inorganic Fertilizer to Fulfill Criteria for Sustainable Agricultural Intensification i...
4.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: In-Field Soil Conservation Practices and Crop Productivity in Marginalized Farming Areas of Zimbabwe
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Soil Conservation Practices
5.3 Soil Conservation Practices that Increase Soil Resistance to Erosion
5.4 Minimum Tillage
5.5 In-Field Soil Conservation that Reduce Soil Erosivity
5.6 Contour Farming
5.7 Strip Cropping
5.8 Windbreaks
5.9 Buffer Strips
5.10 Cropping System
5.11 Mixed Cropping and Inter-Planting
5.12 Cover Crops
5.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Can Organic Soil Fertility Management Sustain Farming and Increase Food Security Among African Smallholder Farmers?
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Characteristics of Soils Among Smallholder Farmers in Africa
6.3 Indigenous Farming Technologies Being Promoted by Smallholder Farmers
6.3.1 Mixed Crop-Animal Farming
6.3.2 Intercropping or Companion Cropping
6.3.3 Traditional Organic Composting
6.3.4 Legume-Based Crop Rotations
6.3.5 Agroforestry
6.4 Organic Agriculture: The Principles
6.5 Climate Smart Soil Fertility and Quality Systems with a Thrust Toward Organic Agriculture
6.5.1 Conservation Agriculture
6.5.2 Biochar in Organic Farming
6.5.3 Ecological Agriculture
6.5.4 Mixed or Companion Cropping and Crop Rotation Benefits
6.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Precision Agriculture Under Arid Environments: Prospects for African Smallholder Farmers
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Arid Environments of Africa and Agriculture
7.3 Climate Change in Agriculture Under Dryland Environments
7.4 Older Adopted Technologies in Farming
7.5 Precision Agriculture in African Agriculture
7.6 Current Precision Farming Technologies Adoptable by Smallholder Farmers
7.6.1 Soil Fertility Management
7.6.2 Hydroponics
7.6.3 Controlled Environment
7.6.4 Genetically Modified Crops
7.6.5 Herbicide Use
7.6.6 Handheld Engine Powered Farming Tools
7.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Challenges and Opportunities for Soil Fertility and Food Security Improvement in Smallholder Maize-Tobacco Producti...
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Description of a Maize-Tobacco Farming System in Zimbabwe
8.3 Challenges of Maize-Tobacco Systems
8.3.1 Shortage of Labour
8.3.2 Infertile Soils
8.3.3 Soil Disturbance and Its Effects on Soil Quality
8.4 Opportunities in Maize-Tobacco Systems
8.4.1 Generation of High Nutrient Value Organic Wastes
8.4.2 Composting Opportunities with Tobacco Waste
8.4.3 Improvement of Soil Properties and Maize Yields with Tobacco Waste Composts
8.4.4 Income Generation
8.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: On-Farm Research Challenges for Agronomic Field Trials in Smallholder Systems: A Practical Experience from Zanyokwe...
9.1 Introduction
9.2 On-Farm Field Trial Challenges
9.2.1 Logistical Challenges
9.2.2 Language Barrier Challenges
9.2.3 Labour Challenges
9.2.4 Leasing and Land Tenure-Related Challenges
9.2.5 Pest Problems
9.2.6 Lack of Technical Knowhow
9.2.7 Unsustainable Land Management Practices
9.2.8 Tillage-Related Crop Loss
9.2.9 Limited Understanding of On-Farm Trials by Farmers
9.2.10 Negative Farmer Attitudes Towards Research Trials
9.3 Increase in Productivity Based on Scientific Advice at Zanyokwe Irrigation Scheme
9.4 Lessons Learnt
9.4.1 Importance of Appropriate Research Approaches
9.4.2 The Importance of Understanding Farmer Attitudes and Perceptions
9.4.3 Issues Arising
9.4.4 Interdisciplinary Approach to On-Farm Research
9.5 Conclusion
References
Part II: Water Resources in Agriculture and Fisheries
Chapter 10: Agricultural Water Resource Governance for Sustainable Food Production: Lessons from Developing Economies
10.1 Background
10.2 Unpacking the Food-Energy-Water Nexus
10.2.1 Conceptual and Analytical Framework
10.2.2 Agricultural Water Access and Management System in Developing Economies
10.2.2.1 Irrigation Organisations and Water Governance Systems (GS)
Accountability System (GS.2) and Operational Rules (GS.4) with the Agricultural Water Sector
Property Rights System (GS.3) in Agricultural Water Sector
10.2.2.2 Resource System and Irrigation Management in Smallholder Irrigation Schemes
10.2.2.3 Resource Unit in Irrigation Water Management Systems
10.2.2.4 Resource Users and the Decision-Making Process in Irrigation Water Management
10.2.2.5 Importance of Positive Psychological Capital in CPR Management
10.3 Alternative Agricultural Water Governance Mechanisms for Increased Production
10.4 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Chapter 11: Aquaculture and Fisheries Production in Africa: Highlighting Potentials and Benefits for Food Security
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 What Is Aquaculture and Fisheries?
11.1.2 What Is Food Security?
11.1.3 State of the Aquatic Environments in Africa
11.1.4 Aquatic Components and Food Security in Africa
11.2 Aquaculture and Fisheries in Africa
11.2.1 Present Challenges in Aquaculture and Fisheries in Africa
11.2.2 Potentials and Benefits of Aquaculture for Food Security in Africa
11.2.3 Aquaculture and Fisheries: Satisfying the Pillars of Food Security
11.2.3.1 Availability
11.2.3.2 Access
11.2.3.3 Utilization
11.2.3.4 Stability
11.3 Practical Solutions for Improvement in Aquaculture and Fisheries Sector for Food security
11.3.1 Aquaculture
11.3.1.1 Repositioning and Re-defining the Relevance of Research Institutions
11.3.1.2 Re-energising Extension Services and Activities
11.3.1.3 Provision of Solution Bus Stops
11.3.1.4 Bringing Aquaculture to the Youths
11.3.1.5 Re-visiting Previous Regional and African Treaties and Programs
11.3.1.6 Infusing Research Findings into Industry and Field Activities
11.3.2 Wild Fisheries Production and Management
11.3.2.1 Africa, Sustainable Fishing and Food Security
11.4 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
Chapter 12: Medicinal Plants: A Perspective on Their Application in the African Smallholder Aquaculture Farms
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Some Medicinal Plants Studied in Aquaculture in Africa
12.3 Mode of Administration
12.4 The Effects of Medicinal Plants Extracts on Fish Growth and Feed Utilization Performance
12.5 Disease Control in Aquaculture
12.5.1 Medicinal Plants as Disease Controlling Agents in Aquaculture
12.5.2 Medicinal Plants as Immunostimulants in Fish
12.5.3 Medicinal Plants as Antibacterial Agents
12.6 Medicinal Plants Application in Feeds for Small-Scale Aquaculture
12.6.1 Medicinal Plants Application in Aqua Feeds
12.6.2 How to Reduce the Effect of Anti-Nutrients?
12.7 Medicinal Plant Extracts as Anaesthetics in Aquaculture
12.8 Medicinal Plants as Sex Reversal Agents in Aquaculture
12.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 13: Application of Integrated Water Resources Management Towards Livelihood Improvement: A Case of Smallholder Farmers...
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Water Resource Use in Namibia
13.3 A Brief Overview on Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
13.4 Water Resources Management in Namibia
13.5 Addressing Food Security in the Olushandja Sub-Basin
13.6 Conclusion
References
Part III: Climate Change and Resilience
Chapter 14: Climate Change Impacts on Food and Nutrition Security on Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Long-Term Climate Change
14.3 Changes in Precipitation Pattern
14.4 Changes in Other Variables and Weather Patterns
14.4.1 Seasonal Climate Patterns
14.5 Climate Change and Food Production (Availability)
14.6 Climate Change Impacts on Food Access and Livelihoods
14.7 Climate Change Impacts on Nutrition and Utilization
14.8 Climate Change and Health
14.9 What Farmers Can Do to Adapt to Climate Change
14.10 Options for Adaptation to Climate Change
14.10.1 How to Support Smallholder Farmers to Adapt to Climate Change
14.10.2 Undertake Regular Assessment of Climate Change Risks and Vulnerability
14.10.3 Modernize Extension Services
14.10.4 Improve Access to Genetic Resources
14.10.5 Exploit the Growing Availability of Information Technology
14.10.6 Facilitate Investments by Smallholder Farmers
14.10.7 Explore the Potential of Innovation Insurance Schemes to Manage Weather Risks
14.10.8 Ensure People Are more Resilient to Climate Change-Enhanced Water Availability Risks
14.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Climate-Smart Agriculture: Perspectives for Subsistence Crop Farming in Namibia
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Agriculture in Namibia
15.3 Policies and Programmes that Support Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Namibia
15.4 Climate-Smart Technologies Being Promoted in Namibia
15.4.1 Conservation Agriculture
15.4.2 Improved Stress-Tolerant Seed
15.4.3 Irrigation
15.5 Challenges with the National Adoption of CSA Practices in Namibia
15.5.1 Knowledge Management
15.5.2 Lack of Dedicated CSA Funding
15.5.3 Ignoring Indigenous Knowledge Systems
15.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Smallholder Farmers´ Adaptation Strategies and Food Security: Experiences from Zimbabwe
16.1 Introduction
16.2 A Global Overview of Food Security
16.3 Climate Change and Food Security
16.4 Challenges in Attaining Food Security in Zimbabwe
16.5 Zimbabwean Farmers´ Experiences and Perceptions on Adaptation Strategies and Food Security
16.6 Moving beyond Incremental Adaptation Towards Transformative Adaptation to Climate Change
16.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Building Resilience to Climate Change by Adopting Conservation Agriculture in the Smallholder Farming Systems
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Building Resilience to Climate Change by Adopting Conservation Agriculture
17.3 Conservation Agriculture (CA)
17.4 Minimum Soil Disturbance
17.5 The Principle of Permanent Soil Cover (Mulching)/Leaving Crop Residues on the Soil Surface
17.6 The Principles of Crop Diversification/Rotation
17.7 Crop Management under CA System
17.8 Impact of Conservation Agriculture on Crop Resilience to Climate Change
17.9 Benefits of CA to Smallholder Farmers
17.10 Adoption of the Conservation Agriculture Technology in Zimbabwe and Challenges Faced by Smallholder Farmers
17.11 Challenges Faced by Smallholder Farmers in Adopting CA
17.12 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Contribution of Underutilised Indigenous Crops to Enhanced Food and Nutrition Security in the Advent of Climate Ch...
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Pathways Towards Mainstreaming Indigenous Food Crops
18.3 State of African Leafy Vegetable in South Africa
18.4 The Potential of ALV in Addressing Food and Nutrition Insecurity
18.5 Barriers to the Integration of Indigenous Crops into Food Systems
18.6 Effects of Drought on ALVs
18.7 Nutritional Water Productivity (NWP)
18.8 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Part IV: Farmer Knowledge: Indigenous Knowledge Systems
Chapter 19: Liquid Gold: Harnessing the Potential of Digestate to Enhance Smallholder Farmer Food Security and Livelihood
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Physico-Chemical and Biological Properties of Digestate
19.2.1 Dry Matter Content of Digestate
19.2.2 Total Organic Matter in Digestate
19.2.3 Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio of Digestate
19.2.4 Total Nitrogen in Digestate
19.2.5 pH of Digestate
19.2.6 Phosphorus and Potassium in Digestate
19.2.7 Biological Properties of Digestate
19.3 Applications of Digestate
19.3.1 Digestate as Soil Amendment or Organic Fertilizer
19.3.2 Digestate for Seed Priming
19.3.3 Digestate as Fungicide
19.3.4 Digestate as Soil Remediation Agent
19.3.5 Digestate in Livestock Management
19.3.6 Digestate in Bioprocesses
19.4 Post-Treatment of Digestate Prior to Downstream Applications
19.4.1 Separation of Solid and Liquid Digestate
19.4.2 Sanitization of Digestate
19.4.3 Solid Digestate Post-Treatment
19.4.3.1 Drying and Pelletizing Digestate
19.4.3.2 Composting Digestate
19.4.4 Liquid Digestate Post-Treatment
19.5 Recommendations
19.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Importance of Mushrooms for Food Security in Africa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Some Indigenous African Mushrooms: Nutritional and Medicinal Content
20.3 African Indigenous Mushroom and Components of Food Security
20.4 Essential Fatty Acids in the Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus Ostreatus (Jacq.ex.fr) P. Kumm (Pleurotaceae): The Content and Che...
20.4.1 Fatty Acids Content of Oyster Mushrooms
20.4.2 The Chemistry of Essential Fatty Acids
20.4.3 Essential Fatty Acids Commonly Found in Oyster Mushrooms and Their Role in Health
20.4.3.1 Linoleic Acid
20.4.3.2 Alpha-Linolenic Acid
20.5 Hindrances to Mushroom Production in Africa
20.5.1 Lack of Production Space
20.5.2 Training Content, Cost and Certification
20.5.3 Lack of Financial Support
20.5.4 Markets
20.5.5 Water Problems
20.5.6 Perishability of Mushrooms
20.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Mushroom Cultivation in Arid Namibia: Cultivation Status, Contribution to Human Health and Future Prospects
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Mushroom Consumption in Namibia
21.3 Status of Mushroom Cultivation in Namibia
21.4 Contribution of Mushrooms to Human Health
21.5 Future Prospects of the Mushroom Cultivation Industry in Namibia
21.6 Conclusion
References
Part V: Socio-agro Economy
Chapter 22: `Can Women Own Land´? Land Inheritances Convolutions: Evidence from the Zimbabwean Resettlement Areas
22.1 Introduction: Contextualising the Gender Realities of Land Inheritance
22.2 Epistemological and Theoretical Framing
22.3 Reflections from Women Smallholder Farmers in Masvingo District
22.4 Rural Food Security-Witchcraft Nexus
22.5 Women´s Land Ownership Through the Idiom of Honorary Husband
22.6 Women Land Ownership: Woman Heir in the Rural Enclave
22.7 Single Women, Land Ownership and Livelihoods
22.8 Synthesis: Yes, Women Can Own Land But
22.9 Conclusions
References
Part VI: Agricultural Policy
Chapter 23: The Governance of Aquaculture in Namibia as a Vehicle for Food Security and Economic Growth
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Aquaculture in Namibia
23.2.1 Marine Aquaculture
23.2.2 Freshwater Aquaculture
23.3 Governance of Aquaculture in Namibia
23.3.1 Governance Institutions
23.3.2 Licensing Requirements
23.3.3 Property Rights in Aquaculture
23.3.4 Aquaculture Management and Control Measures
23.4 Aquaculture as a Driver for Food Security in Namibia
23.5 Aquaculture as a Driver for Economic Growth of Namibia
23.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24: A Decade of Agronomic Research Impact on Commercializing Traditional Homestead Production of Amadumbe in Umbumbulu...
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Identification of the Purpose
24.2.1 A Decade Later (Return Study)
24.2.2 An Emergent Research Topic
24.2.3 An Emergent Research Question
24.2.4 Study Assumptions
24.2.5 Study Limits
24.3 Approach and Livelihood Framework
24.4 Methodology
24.4.1 Location and Characteristics of Study Area
24.4.2 Sampling and Composition of Participants
24.4.3 Data Collection and Analysis
24.5 Results and Discussions
24.5.1 Overall Sustainability
24.5.2 Biological Productivity: Improvements to Soil Health and Quality
24.5.3 Impacts on Rural Livelihoods
24.5.3.1 Ezigeni Village Impact
24.5.3.2 Explaining the Score of 1
24.5.4 Other Factors Impacting on Sustainability
24.5.4.1 Age and Level of Education
24.5.4.2 Impact on Production Practices
24.5.4.3 Land Use and Cropping System
24.6 Conclusions
References
Correction to: Sub-Saharan Africa Smallholder Farmers Agricultural Productivity: Risks and Challenges
Correction to: Chapter 3 in: H. A. Mupambwa et al. (eds.), Food Security for African Smallholder Farmers, https://doi.org/10.1...
Index