Food Flavour Technology

Contents......Page 10
1.1.1 A little history......Page 16
1.2 Interpreting analyses......Page 17
1.3.1 Primary characters......Page 18
1.3.2 Secondary characteristics......Page 20
1.3.3 Taste effects......Page 21
1.3.5 Flavour balance......Page 22
1.3.6 Unfinished work......Page 23
1.4.1 Ingredient factors......Page 24
1.4.3 Storage factors......Page 26
1.5.1 Water-soluble liquid flavours......Page 27
1.5.3 Oil-soluble liquid flavours......Page 29
1.5.6 Spray-dried flavours......Page 30
1.6 Production issues......Page 32
1.8 A typical flavours......Page 33
1.9.1 International tastes......Page 36
1.9.2 Abstract flavours......Page 38
1.9.3 Matching......Page 39
1.9.4 Customers......Page 40
1.10 Summary......Page 41
2.2 General aspects of the Maillard reaction......Page 42
2.2.1 Intermediates as flavour precursors......Page 43
2.2.2 Carbohydrate fragmentation......Page 48
2.2.3 Strecker degradation......Page 50
2.3.1 Character impact compounds of thermally treated foods......Page 52
2.3.2 Character impact compounds of process flavours......Page 56
2.4.1 General aspects......Page 59
2.4.2 Factors influencing flavour formation......Page 60
2.4.3 Savoury process flavours......Page 63
2.5 Outlook......Page 66
References......Page 67
3.2 Natural flavours: market situation and driving forces......Page 75
3.3 Advantages of biocatalysis......Page 76
3.4.1 Biotransformation and bioconversion of monoterpenes......Page 77
3.4.2 Bioconversion of C[sub(13)-norisoprenoids and sesquiterpenes......Page 81
3.4.3 Generation of oxygen heterocycles......Page 82
3.4.4 Generation of vanillin, benzaldehyde and benzoic compounds......Page 84
3.4.5 Generation of miscellaneous compounds......Page 87
3.5 Enzyme Technology......Page 88
3.5.1 Liberation of volatiles from bound precursors......Page 89
3.5.2 Biotransformations......Page 90
3.5.3 Kinetic resolution of racemates......Page 91
3.6.1 Plant cell, tissue and organ cultures......Page 92
3.6.2 Callus and suspension cultures......Page 93
3.6.3 Organ cultures......Page 94
3.6.4 Plant cell biotransformations......Page 95
3.7.1 Genetically modified microorganisms......Page 97
3.7.2 Isolated enzymes from genetically modified microorganisms......Page 98
3.7.3 Plant rDNA techniques......Page 99
3.8 Advances in bioprocessing......Page 102
3.8.1 Process developments in microbial and enzyme systems......Page 103
3.8.2 Process developments of plant catalysts......Page 104
References......Page 106
4.2 Properties of flavour molecules......Page 120
4.2.1 Flavour perception......Page 121
4.2.2 Differences in sensory character and intensity between isomers......Page 128
4.2.3 Extraction of flavours from plant material......Page 129
4.2.4 Commercial, economic and safety aspects......Page 134
4.3.1 Background......Page 135
4.3.2 Cream and butter......Page 136
4.3.3 Cheese......Page 137
4.4.1 Hydrolysed vegetable proteins......Page 140
4.4.2 Chocolate......Page 141
4.4.3 Tea......Page 143
4.4.4 Coffee......Page 144
4.4.5 Beer......Page 145
4.4.6 Wine......Page 148
4.5 Cereal products......Page 149
4.6.1 Vanilla......Page 150
4.6.2 Spice flavours......Page 151
4.6.3 Garlic, onion and related flavours......Page 153
4.6.5 'Fresh/green/grassy'......Page 155
4.7.1 Apples......Page 157
4.7.2 Pears......Page 158
4.7.4 Blackcurrant......Page 159
4.7.6 Strawberry......Page 160
4.7.8 Citrus and citrus processing......Page 161
4.8 Other flavour characteristics......Page 164
References......Page 165
5.1 Introduction......Page 168
5.2 Compatibility and cohesion......Page 169
5.3 Sorption and swelling......Page 172
5.4 Diffusion and release......Page 175
5.5 Summary......Page 178
References......Page 179
6.1 Introduction......Page 182
6.3.1 Definition of gas/product partition coefficients and activity coefficients......Page 183
6.3.2 Types of binding......Page 185
6.3.3 Lipid-flavour interactions......Page 186
6.3.4 Carbohydrate-flavour interactions......Page 187
6.3.5 Protein–flavour interactions......Page 189
6.4.1 Principles of interfacial mass transfer......Page 190
6.4.2 Liquid food products......Page 193
6.4.4 Solid food products......Page 194
References......Page 196
7.1 Introduction......Page 200
7.2.1 The air–water partition coefficient......Page 201
7.2.2 Estimation of K[sub(aw)] using QSPR......Page 202
7.2.3 Effect of lipids on volatile partitioning......Page 204
7.2.4 QSPR estimation of the air–emulsion partition coefficient......Page 205
7.3 Dynamic systems......Page 207
7.3.1 Modelling flavour release from a retronasal aroma simulator......Page 208
7.3.2 Nonequilibrium partition modelling of volatile loss from matrices......Page 209
7.3.3 Modelling the gas phase dilution of equilibrium headspace......Page 211
7.3.4 Modelling the gas phase dilution of equilibrium headspace above emulsions......Page 213
7.3.5 Modelling the rate of volatile equilibration in the headspace above emulsions......Page 214
7.4 In vivo consumption......Page 215
7.4.2 Effect of gas flow on volatile equilibration above emulsions......Page 216
7.4.3 Modelling volatile transfer through the upper airway......Page 217
7.4.4 Nonequilibrium partition model for in vivo release......Page 218
7.4.5 Modelling flavour release using time intensity data......Page 219
7.4.6 QSPR of in vivo volatile release from gels......Page 220
7.5 Conclusion......Page 222
References......Page 223
8.1 Analytical challenges......Page 225
8.2 Aroma isolation......Page 227
8.2.1 Aroma isolation methods based on volatility......Page 228
8.2.2 Aroma isolation methods using solvent extraction......Page 235
8.2.3 Solid-phase microextraction......Page 237
8.2.4 General considerations in preparing aroma isolates......Page 239
8.2.5 Aroma isolation summary......Page 240
8.3.1 'Complete' aroma profile......Page 241
8.3.3 Off-notes in a food product......Page 242
8.3.4 Monitoring aroma changes in foods......Page 243
8.4 Aroma isolate fractionation prior to analysis......Page 244
8.4.1 Fractionation of concentrates prior to analysis......Page 245
8.5.1 High-resolution gas chromatography......Page 249
8.5.2 Gas chromatography–olfactometry......Page 250
8.5.3 Specific gas chromatographic detectors......Page 254
8.7 Identification of volatile flavours......Page 255
8.7.1 Gas chromatography......Page 256
8.7.2 Infrared spectroscopy......Page 257
8.7.3 Mass spectrometry......Page 258
8.8 Electronic 'noses'......Page 261
References......Page 262
9.2.1 Discrimination tests......Page 267
9.2.2 Intensity rating tests......Page 269
9.2.3 Time-intensity......Page 270
9.2.4 Descriptive analysis......Page 273
9.2.5 Consumer tests......Page 274
9.2.6 Quality control tests......Page 275
9.3.1 Facilities......Page 276
9.3.3 Experimental design......Page 277
9.4.1 Human subject consent forms and regulations......Page 279
9.4.4 Reference standards......Page 280
9.5.2 Analysis of variance......Page 281
9.5.3 Power......Page 282
9.5.4 Principal component analysis: an exploratory tool......Page 283
9.6 Relating sensory and instrumental flavour data......Page 284
References......Page 286
10.2 Methods of legislation......Page 291
10.3 Legislation in the United States......Page 292
10.4 International situation: JECFA......Page 294
10.5 Council of Europe......Page 295
10.6 European Community......Page 298
References......Page 308
C......Page 312
F......Page 313
L......Page 314
P......Page 315
S......Page 316
Y......Page 317