Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications

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FLUID MECHANICS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS, THIRD EDITION

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© 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
ISBN 978-0-07-338032-2
Dedication

About the Authors

Brief Contents

CONTENTS

Preface
Background
Objectives
New to the Third Edition
Philosophy and Goal
Content and Organization
Learning Tools
Emphasis on Physics
Effective Use of Association
Self-Instructing
Extensive Use of Artwork and Photographs
Consistent Color Scheme for Figures
Numerous Worked-Out Examples
A Wealth of Realistic End-of-Chapter Problems
Use of Common Notation
A Choice of SI Alone or SI/English Units
Combined Coverage of Bernoulli and Energy Equations
A Separate Chapter on CFD
Application Spotlights
Glossary of Fluid Mechanics Terms
Conversion Factors
Nonmenclature
Supplements
Text Website
Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
Acknowledgments
Online Resources for Students and Instructors


Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts
1-1 Introduction
What Is a Fluid?
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
1-2 A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
1-3 The No-Slip Condition
1-4 Classification of Fluid Flows
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions or Flow
Internal versus External Flow
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
1-5 System and Control Volume
1-6 Importance of Dimensions and Units
Some SI and English Units
Dimensional Homogeneity
Unity Conversion Rates
1-7 Modeling in Engineering
1-8 Problem-Solving Technique
Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Venficat1on, and Discussion
1-9 Engineering Software Packages
Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
CFD Software
1-10 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Application Spotlight: What Nuclear Blasts and Raindrops Have in Common
Problems


Chapter 2: Properties of Fluids
2-1 Introduction
Continuum
2-2 Density and Specific Gravity
Density of Ideal Gases
2-3 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
2-4 Energy and Specific Heats
2-5 Compressibility and Speed of Sound
Coefficient of Compressibility
Coefficient of Volume Expansion
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
2-6 Viscosity
2-7 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect
Capillary Effect
Summary
Application Spotlight: Cavitation
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics
3-1 Pressure
Pressure at a Point
Variation of Pressure with Depth
3-2 Pressure Measurement Devices
The Barometer
The Manometer
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
3-3 Introduction to Fluid Statics
3-4 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate
3-5 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces
3-6 Buoyancy and Stability
Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
3-7 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion
Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest
Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body
Acceleration on a Straight Path
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 4: Fluid Kinematics
4-1 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions
Acceleration Field
Material Derivative
4-2 Flow Patterns and Flow Visualization
Streamlines and Streamtubes
Pathlines
Streaklines
Timelines
Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques
Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
4-3 Plots of Fluid Flow Data
Profile Plots
Vector Plots
Contour Plots
4-4 Other Kinematic Descriptions
Types of Motion or Deformation or Fluid Elements
4-5 Vorticity and Rotationality
Comparison of Two Circular Flows
4-6 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT
Summary
Application Spotlight: Fluidic Actuators
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 5: Bernoulli and Energy Equations
5-1 Introduction
Conservation of Mass
The Linear Momentum Equation
Conservation of Energy
5-2 Conservation of Mass
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Conservation of Mass Principle
Moving or Deforming Control Volumes
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
5-3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency
5-4 The Bernoulli Equation
Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Force Balance across Streamlines
Unsteady, Compressible Flow
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
5-5 General Energy Equation
Energy Transfer by Heat, Q
Energy Transfer by Work, W
5-6 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No Mechanical Work Devices and Negligible Friction
Kinetic Energy Correction Facto, a
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 6: Momentum Analysis of Flow Systems
6-1 Newton's Laws
6-2 Choosing a Control Volume
6-3 Forces Acting on a Control Volume
6-4 The Linear Momentum Equation
Special Cases
Momentum-Flux Correction Factor ß
Steady Flow
Flow with No External Forces
6-5 Review of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
6-6 The Angular Momentum Equation
Special Cases
Flow with No External Moments
Radial-Flow Devices
Application Spotlight: Manta Ray Swimming
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 7: Dimensional Analysis and Modeling
7-1 Dimensions and Units
7-2 Dimensional Homogeneity
Nondimensionalization of Equations
7-3 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
7-4 The Method of Repeating Variables and The Buckingham Pi Theorem
Historical Spotlight: Persons Honored by Nondimensional Parameters
7-5 Experimental Testing, Modeling, and Incomplete Similarity
Setup of an Experiment and Correlation of Experimental Data
Incomplete Similarity
Wind Tunnel Testing
Flows with Free Surfaces
Application Spotlight: How a Fly Flies
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 8: Internal Flow
8-1 Introduction
8-2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Reynolds Number
8-3 The Entrance Region
Entry Lengths
8-4 Laminar Flow in Pipes
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Effect of Gravity on Velocity and Flow Rate in Laminar Flow
Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes
8-5 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
Turbulent Shear Stress
Turbulent Velocity Profile
The Moody Chart and the Colebrook Equation
Types of Fluid Flow Problems
8-6 Minor Losses
8-7 Piping Networks and Pump Selection
Series and Parallel Pipes
Piping Systems with Pumps and Turbines
8-8 Flow Rate and Velocity Measurement
Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes
Obstruction Flowmeters: Orifice, Venturi, and Nozzle Meters
Positive Displacement Flowmeters
Turbine Flowmeters
Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rota meters)
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Electromagnetic Flowmeters
Vortex Flowmeters
Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers
Laser Doppler Velocimetry
Particle Image Velocimetry
Introduction to Biofluid Mechanics
Application Spotlight: PIV Applied to Cardiac Flow
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 9: Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow
9-1 Introduction
9-2 Conservation of Mass — The Continuity Equation
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
Alternative Form of the Continuity Equation
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
Special Cases of the Continuity Equation
9-3 The Stream Function
The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates
The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates
The Compressible Stream Function
9-4 The Differential Linear Momentum Equation — Cauchy's Equation
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
Alternative Form of Cauchy's Equation
Derivation Using Newton's Second Law
9-5 The Navier-Stokes Equation
Introduction
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids
Derivation of the Navier-stokes Equation for Incompressible, Isothermal Flow
Continuity and Navier-stokes Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
Continuity and Navier-stokes Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates
9-6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow Problems
Calculation of the Pressure Field for a Known Velocity Field
Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Navier-stokes Equations
Differential Analysis of Biofluid Mechanics Flows
Application Spotlight: The No-Slip Boundary Condition
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 10: Approximate Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equation
10-1 Introduction
10-2 Nondimensionalized Equations of Motion
10-3 The Creeping Flow Approximation
Drag on a Sphere in Creeping Flow
10-4 Approximation for Inviscid Regions of Flow
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation in Inviscid Regions of Flow
10-5 The Irrotational Flow Approximation
Continuity Equation
Momentum Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation in Irrotational Regions of Flow
Two-Dimensional Irrotational Regions of Flow
Superposition in Irrotational Regions of Flow
Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
Irrotational Flows Formed by Superposition
10-6 The Boundary Layer Approximation
The Boundary Layer Equations
The Boundary Layer Procedure
Displacement Thickness
Momentum Thickness
Turbulent Flat Plate Boundary Layer
Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradients
The Momentum Integral Technique for Boundary Layers
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Application Spotlight: Droplet Formation
Problems


Chapter 11: External Flow: Drag and Lift
11-1 Introduction
11-2 Drag and Lift
11-3 Friction and Pressure Drag
Reducing Drag by Streamlining
Flow Separation
11-4 Drag Coefficients of Common Geometries
Biological Systems and Drag
Drag Coefficients of Vehicles
Superposition
11-5 Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates
Friction Coefficient
11-6 Flow Over Cylinders And Spheres
Effect of Surface Roughness
11-7 Lift
Finite-Span Wings and Induced Drag
Lift Generated by Spinning
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Application Spotlight: Drag Reduction
Problems


Chapter 12: Compressible Flow
12-1 Stagnation Properties
12-2 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
12-3 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
12-4 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shocks
Oblique Shocks
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
12-5 Duct Flow With Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction (Rayleigh Flow)
Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow
Choked Rayleigh Flow
12-6 Adiabatic Duct Flow With Friction (Fanno Flow)
Property Relations for Fanno Flow
Choked Fanno Flow
Application Spotlight: Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer Interactions
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 13: Open-Channel Flow
13-1 Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Uniform and Vaned Flows
Laminar and Turbulent Flows in Channels
13-2 Froude Number and Wave Speed
Speed of Surface Waves
13-3 Specific Energy
13-4 Conservation of Mass and Energy Equations
13-5 Uniform Flow in Channels
Critical Uniform Flow
Superposition Method for Nonuniform Perimeters
13-6 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Rectangular Channels
Trapezoidal Channels
13-7 Gradually Varied Flow
Liquid Surface Profiles in Open Channels, y(x)
Some Representative Surface Profiles
Numerical Solution of Surface Profile
13-8 Rapidly Varied Flow and The Hydraulic Jump
13-9 Flow Control and Measurement
Underflow Gates
Overflow Gates
Application Spotlight: Bridge Scour
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 14: Turbomachinery
14-1 Classifications and Terminology
14-2 Pumps
Pump Performance Curves and Matching a Pump to a Piping System
Pump cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head
Pumps in Series and Parallel
Positive-Displacement Pumps
Dynamic Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps
Axial Pumps
14-3 Pump Scaling Laws
Dimensional Analysis
Pump Specific Speed
Affinity Laws
14-4 Turbines
Positive-Displacement Turbines
Dynamic Turbines
Impulse Turbines
Reaction Turbines
Gas and Steam Turbines
Wind Turbines
14-5 Turbine Scaling Laws
Dimensionless Turbine Parameters
Turbine Specific Speed
Application Spotlight: Rotary Fuel Atomizers
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Chapter 15: Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics
15-1 Introduction and Fundamentals
Motivation
Equations of Motion
Solution Procedure
Additional Equations of Motion
Grid Generation and Grid Independence
Boundary Conditions
Practice Makes Perfect
15-2 Laminar CFD Calculations
Pipe Flow Entrance Region at Re = 500
Flow around a Circular Cylinder at Re = 150
15-3 Turbulent CFD Calculations
Flow around a Circular Cylinder at Re = 10,000
Flow around a Circular Cylinder at Re = 107
Design of the Stator for a Vane-Axial Flow Fan
15-4 CFD With Heat Transfer
Temperature Rise through a Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger
Cooling of an Array of Integrated Circuit Chips
15-5 Compressible Flow CFD Calculations
Compressible Flow through a Converging-Diverging Nozzle
Oblique Shocks over a Wedge
15-6 Open-Channel Flow CFD Calculations
Flow over a Bump on the Bottom of a Channel
Flow through a Sluice Gate (Hydraulic Jump)
Application Spotlight: A Virtual Stomach
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems


Appendix 1: Property Tables and Charts (SI Units)
Table A-1 Molar Mass, Gas Constant, and Ideal-Gas Specific Heats of Some Substances
Table A-2 Boiling and Freezing Point Properties
Table A-3 Properties of Saturated Water
Table A-4 Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-134a
Table A-5 Properties of Saturated Ammonia
Table A-6 Properties of Saturated Propane
Table A-7 Properties of Liquids
Table A-8 Properties of Liquid Metals
Table A-9 Properties of Air at 1 atm Pressure
Table A-10 Properties of Gases at 1 atm Pressure
Table A-11 Properties of the Atmosphere at High Altitude
Figure A-12 The Moody Chart for the Friction Factor for Fully Developed Flow in Circular Pipes
Table A-13 One-Dimensional Isentropic Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4
Table A-14 One-Dimensional Normal Shock Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4
Table A-15 Rayleigh Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4
Table A-16 Fanno Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

Appendix 2: Property Tables and Charts (English Units)
Table A-1E Molar Mass, Gas Constant, and Ideal-Gas Specific Heats of Some Substances
Table A-2E Boiling and Freezing Point Properties
Table A-3E Properties of Saturated Water
Table A-4E Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-134a
Table A-5E Properties of Saturated Ammonia
Table A-6E Properties of Saturated Propane
Table A-7E Properties of Liquids
Table A-8E Properties of Liquid Metals
Table A-9E Properties of Air at 1 atm Pressure
Table A-10E Properties of Gases at 1 atm Pressure
Table A-11E Properties of the Atmosphere at High Altitude


Glossary


INDEX


Nomenclature
Latin Letters
Greek Letters
Subscripts
Superscripts

Quick References
Conversion Factors
Some Physical Constants
Commonly Used Properties
Air at 20°C (68°F) and 1 atm
Liquid water at 20°C (68°F) and 1 atm

Errata