This open access book shows how the adoption of global justice, such as eradication of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), has given rise to controversy, resistance, and transformation at the national, regional, and grass-roots levels in African and Asian countries where FGM/C has been practiced. It provides readers with up-to-date information about the effects of the campaign to eradicate FGM/C and the present situation of those countries, to which preceding books on FGM/C have scarcely referred. Adopting “zero tolerance” as a policy of eradication, WHO and other UN agencies have opposed any type of FGM/C, and many African countries have criminalized the practice. Although the campaign is based on the human rights discourse which is shared globally, the controversies concerning eradication of FGM/C on the national level and the responses of communities on the local level in those countries are diverse and complicated. Various actors such as NGOs, government officials, religious leaders, medical workers, and local inhabitants are embroiled and negotiate with each other concerning its eradication.
With this book, readers are provided with an in-depth analysis of the complicated controversies and responses of local communities, referring to their particular historical and social backgrounds. The book provides two chapters on FGM/C in Asian countries, where not many studies have done yet. It also presents readers with a study of the arguments and responses to FGM/C of African immigrants by Australian health-care professionals as well as a study of male circumcision eradication campaigns, which have been carried on in tandem with FGM/C eradication campaigns but still not have been successful. With its many elaborate case studies, this book is highly recommended to readers who seek an in-depth and up-to-date integrated overview of the FGM/C studies as well as studies on the applicability of global justice to local communities.
Author(s): Kyoko Nakamura, Kaori Miyachi, Yukio Miyawaki, Makiko Toda
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 202
City: Singapore
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
1 Introduction
1.1 WHO Definition and Classification
1.2 Terminology
1.3 The Abolition Movement and Politics and Economics in Western Societies
1.4 Enactment of Prohibition Laws and Local Reactions
1.5 Zero Tolerance and the UN Ban on “Medicalization”
1.6 Chapter Contents
References
2 Global Discourse and the Patriarchal Norms of FGM: Beyond the Zero Tolerance Policy
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 FGM and Cultural Relativism
2.1.2 Local Diversity in Africa
2.1.3 The Aim of This Chapter
2.2 Zero Tolerance Policy in the International Community
2.2.1 Efforts of the International Community
2.2.2 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
2.2.3 SDGs
2.2.4 Changes in Africa
2.3 Zero Tolerance Policy in Kenya and FGM in the Somali Community
2.3.1 Zero Tolerance Policy in Kenya
2.3.2 FGM in the Somali Community
2.4 Ways of Abolishing FGM—Beyond the Zero Tolerance Approach
2.4.1 The Role of Religious Leaders
2.4.2 Positive Deviance Approach
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 What Has Become of FGC After Strict Eradication Campaigns?: Female Genital Cutting and Its Eradication Activities Among the Yellow Bull in Ethiopia
3.1 Introduction
3.2 FGC in Ethiopia
3.2.1 General View of FGC in Ethiopia
3.2.2 FGC in Ethiopia Based on DHS
3.2.3 FGC in Amhara Region
3.2.4 FGC in Harari Region
3.2.5 FGC in Somali Region
3.2.6 Oromia Region
3.2.7 FGC in Transition
3.3 Forced Abolition and Resistance of Women: FGC Among the Yellow Bull
3.3.1 Historical Background of the Yellow Bull
3.3.2 FGC of the Yellow Bull
3.3.3 Patriarchy and the Politics of Interpretation: Ritual Meanings of FGC Among the Yellow Bull
3.3.4 Interpretation of FGC and Resistance of Women
3.4 Abolition of FGC in the Yellow Bull
3.4.1 FGM Abolition Campaign Among the Yellow Bull
3.4.2 Failure of Abolition
3.4.3 Stakeholders and Politics of FGC
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Ending Female Genital Mutilation: Progress and Challenges in the Somali Region, Ethiopia
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives and Methods
4.2.1 Objectives
4.2.2 Methods and Sources of Data
4.2.3 Study Sites and People
4.3 Analysis of Findings
4.3.1 Interventions: Agents and Strategies
4.3.2 Ending Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Progress and Challenges
4.4 General Discussion
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Transformation and Continuation: FGC Among the Gusii People in Western Kenya
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Changes of FC/FGC in KDHS
5.3 FGC as a Tradition Among the Gusii People
5.3.1 As a Rite of Passage
5.3.2 Reasons for the Practice
5.4 Medicalization and Changes of FGC from 1980s Until 2000
5.4.1 Medicalization Since the 1980s
5.4.2 The Places of the Operation
5.4.3 People’s Reactions
5.5 How Have People’s Attitudes Changed?
5.5.1 Anti-FGM Activities
5.5.2 What About the Reaction to Anti-FGM Activities
5.5.3 No More FGC?
5.6 Conclusion
References
6 An Ethnography of Diversity and Flexibility Around Female Circumcision and Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Case of a Local Community Response to the Abolition Movement in Kenya
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Undergrounding of FGM/C
6.3 Local Intermediate Option, “Kati-Kati”
6.4 Diversification of Operation Styles and People’s Identity
6.5 Controversial Consequences of the Powerful and Inflexible Zero Tolerance Policy
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Research Note on a Grassroots Movement to Eradicate Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting Among Kenyan Maasai
7.1 FGM/C Among Maasai Girls
7.2 CBO Activities on Anti-FGM/C
7.3 Reactions of the Girl, Her Mother, and a Neighbor
References
8 Female Genital Cutting in Asia: The Case of Malaysia
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Background
8.3 Prevalence
8.4 Malaysia
8.4.1 History of Malay and Islam in Malaysia
8.4.2 FGC in Malaysia
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Female Genital Cutting and the “Medical Gaze” in Southeast Asia
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Theoretical Background
9.3 FGC in Southeast Asia
9.4 FGC Through the Medical Gaze
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 Healthcare Provision for Refugees and Immigrant Women with FGM Living in Australia
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Burden of Complication of FGM in Australia
10.3 Knowledge and Training of Health Care Workers
10.3.1 Doctors
10.3.2 Midwives
10.3.3 Women with FGM as Healthcare Recipients
10.4 Men and FGM
10.5 Policy Responses in Australia
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Autonomy, Bodily Integrity and Male Genital Cutting
11.1 Introduction
11.2 From Reproductive Health to Sexual Rights
11.3 Medically Unnecessary Genital Cutting
11.3.1 Terminology
11.3.2 Circumcision
11.3.3 Genital Cutting for “Health Benefits”
11.3.4 A New Trend
11.4 A Conflict of Issues
11.5 Conclusion: Leave No One Behind
Appendix: Declaration of Sexual Rights
References
12 Notes on the History of Feminist Activism in Sudan: Editors’ Interview with Prof. Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf
12.1 African Academics Are at the Forefront of Illuminating the Cultural Underpinnings of This Practice
12.2 Western Feminist Representations and Negative Images of Africa and Africans
12.3 Feminist Movement in Sudan
12.4 International Campaigns Should Collaborate with Community Activists
References
Index
