Eye Movement Research - An Introduction to its Scientific Foundations and Applications

Preface......Page 6
Contributors......Page 8
Advisory Board......Page 12
Contents......Page 14
Basics......Page 16
1 Introduction to the Study of Eye Movements......Page 17
1.1 Why Do We Need Our Eyes to Move After All?......Page 18
1.2 How Do We Move Our Eyes?......Page 19
References......Page 23
2 Saccades: Fundamentals and Neural Mechanisms......Page 25
2.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 27
2.3 Fundamental Characteristics of Visually-Guided Saccades......Page 34
2.3.1 Visually-Guided Responses......Page 37
2.3.2 Secondary Stimuli Inform Models of Saccade Generation......Page 40
2.3.3 The Role of Visual Attention in Selecting Saccadic Endpoints......Page 45
2.3.4 Impact of Stimulus Onset Timing on Saccade Latency......Page 46
2.4 Volitional Saccade Paradigms Evoking Cognitive Control......Page 48
2.4.1 Antisaccades: Goal-Directed Responses in Competition with Stimulus-Triggered Impulses......Page 49
2.4.2 Ocular Motor Delayed Response Tasks and Visuospatial Memory......Page 56
2.4.3 Internal Monitoring of Spatiotemporal Accuracy in Predictive Saccades......Page 57
2.5 Cortical and Sub-cortical Neural Circuitry Involved in Saccade Generation......Page 59
2.5.1 Visual Input to Occipital Cortex......Page 62
2.5.2 Attention and Visual-Motor Transformation in Parietal Cortex......Page 64
2.5.3 Saccade Planning and Generation in Frontal/Supplementary Eye Fields......Page 66
2.5.4 Top-Down Cognitive Control in Prefrontal Cortex......Page 67
2.5.6 Motor Control in Cerebellum, Basal Ganglia, and Thalamus......Page 69
2.5.7 Visual and Motor Mapping in Superior Colliculus......Page 70
2.6 Suggested Readings......Page 72
Bibliography......Page 73
3 Fixational Eye Movements......Page 86
3.1 Introduction: Tremor, Drift, and Microsaccades, the Three Kinds of Fixational Eye Movements......Page 87
3.2 Historical Background......Page 90
3.3 Prevention and Reversal of Neural Adaptation and Perceptual Fading......Page 93
3.4 Neural Responses to Microsaccades in Visual Brain Areas......Page 111
3.5 Neural Generation of Microsaccades......Page 112
3.6 Microsaccades and Neurological Disease......Page 113
3.7 Gaze Correction, Control, and Acuity......Page 115
3.8 Microsaccades and Attention......Page 116
3.9 Suggested Readings......Page 118
3.10 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 120
Bibliography......Page 121
4 Smooth Eye Movements in Humans: Smooth Pursuit, Optokinetic Nystagmus and Vestibular Ocular Reflex......Page 129
4.1 Introduction with Learning Objectives......Page 132
4.2 Historical Annotations......Page 135
4.3.1 Smooth Pursuit—Keeping Small Moving Objects on the Fovea......Page 137
4.3.3 Vestibular Ocular Reflex—The Antishake Mechanism for Human Vision......Page 141
4.4.1 Smooth Pursuit......Page 142
4.4.2 Optokinetic Nystagmus......Page 154
4.5.1 What Models Can Tell About Physiological Systems......Page 155
4.5.2 Control Systems Models of Smooth Pursuit—Calculate the Eye Command from Moment to Moment......Page 157
4.5.3 State Space Models of Smooth Pursuit—Calculate the Eye Command Based on the Whole Pattern......Page 158
4.6.1 Smooth Pursuit......Page 159
4.6.2 Interaction of the Pursuit Network with Neural Networks for OKN and VOR......Page 165
4.7.1 Genes Modulating Dopamine Transmission......Page 166
4.8 Future Perspectives......Page 168
4.10 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 169
References......Page 170
5 Visual Perception and Eye Movements......Page 176
5.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 177
5.3 Psychophysical and Oculomotor Studies of Human Vision......Page 180
5.3.1 Contrast Sensitivity of Foveal and Peripheral Vision......Page 181
5.3.2 Visual Crowding in Eccentric Vision......Page 182
5.3.3 The Need for Eye Movements in Primate Vision......Page 183
5.3.4 Vision During Eye Movements......Page 184
5.3.5 Saccadic Suppression......Page 185
5.3.6 Saccadic Suppression of Displacement......Page 186
5.3.7 Saccadic Mislocalizations......Page 188
5.3.8 Saccadic Adaptation......Page 189
5.3.9 Motion Perception and Pursuit Eye Movements......Page 191
5.3.11 Coherent Dot Motion Perception During Stable Fixation and Smooth Pursuit......Page 192
5.3.12 Sensorimotor Transformations During Pursuit......Page 194
5.3.13 The Role of Attention in Vision and Eye Movements......Page 195
5.3.14 Visual Memory and Eye Movements......Page 197
5.4 Conclusions......Page 198
5.6 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 199
Bibliography......Page 200
6 Scenes, Saliency Maps and Scanpaths......Page 208
6.1 Introduction......Page 210
6.2 Historical Annotations......Page 211
6.3.1 Answering the Question “Where Do People Fixate?”......Page 213
6.3.3 The Brain Represents Saliency by Integrating Features and Attention......Page 217
6.3.4 The Itti and Koch Saliency Map Provides a Model of Bottom-up Eye Guidance......Page 220
6.3.5 Guidelines for Eye Movement Researchers Computing a Saliency Map......Page 222
6.3.6 Saliency Map Models Can Be Tested in Multiple Ways, but None Are Perfect......Page 224
6.3.7 Bottom-up Features Play Only a Minor Role in the Guidance of Eye Movements......Page 230
6.4.1 Temporal and Sequential Analysis of Fixations Can Provide Additional Insights into Eye Movement Control......Page 233
6.4.2 Classic Research Emphasized Cognitive Constraints on Scanning Patterns......Page 234
6.4.3 Scanpath Theory Links Eye Movements to a Cognitive Model for Visual Recognition......Page 235
6.4.4 Methods for Scanpath Comparison Can Preserve Spatial and Temporal Information About Viewing Behaviour......Page 236
6.4.5 Tests of Scanpath Theory Confirm that Participants Are Idiosyncratic in Where They Look......Page 239
6.4.6 Manipulating Scanpaths Can Affect Memory......Page 240
6.4.7 Eye Movements Provide Information About Recognition and Imagery......Page 241
6.5.1 Perception of Art......Page 242
6.5.3 Computer Vision......Page 243
6.6 Conclusions and Limitations......Page 244
References......Page 245
7 Eye Movements During Reading......Page 250
7.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 252
7.2 Historical Annotations......Page 254
7.3 Theories of Eye Guidance in Reading......Page 256
7.4 Eye Movement Paradigms Used to Study Reading......Page 258
7.5.1 Foveal Word Processing Among Competent Adult Readers......Page 261
7.5.2 Foveal Word Processing Among Developing Readers......Page 264
7.5.3 Parafoveal Word Processing Among Competent Adult Readers......Page 266
7.5.4 Parafoveal Word Processing Among Developing Readers......Page 269
7.6 Eye Movements During Sentence Comprehension......Page 270
7.7 Eye Movements During Text Reading......Page 271
7.7.1 Task Effects in Text Reading......Page 273
7.7.2 Developmental Trends in Text Reading......Page 275
7.8 Outlook......Page 276
7.9 Suggested Readings......Page 277
7.10 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 278
Bibliography......Page 279
Methods......Page 286
8 Eye Tracking Methodology......Page 287
8.2.1 Historical Approaches......Page 289
8.2.2 Current Techniques......Page 290
8.2.3 Video Based Eye Trackers......Page 296
8.3 Software Used in Eye Tracking Research......Page 300
8.3.1 Software Controlling the Eye Tracker......Page 301
8.3.2 Stimulus Presentation Software......Page 302
8.3.3 Data Analysis Software......Page 303
8.4.1 Key Terms......Page 304
8.4.2 Measuring Data Quality......Page 309
8.4.3 Maximising Data Quality—Participant Set up and Calibration......Page 311
8.6 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 317
References......Page 318
9 Advanced Statistical Methods for Eye Movement Analysis and Modelling: A Gentle Introduction......Page 319
9.1 Introduction......Page 320
9.2 Historical Annotations......Page 327
9.3 A Probabilistic Tour of Current Computational Models of Eye Movements and Visual Attention (with Some Criticism)......Page 331
9.4 Stochastic Processes and Eye Movements......Page 343
9.5 How to Leave the Past Behind: Markov Processes......Page 348
9.5.1 Case Study: The Horowitz and Wolfe Hypothesis of Amnesic Visual Search......Page 354
9.5.2 Stationary Markov Processes and Markov Chains......Page 355
9.5.3 Levels of Representation of the Dynamics of a Stochastic Process......Page 357
9.5.4 Walking on the Safe Side: The Central Limit Theorem......Page 375
9.6.1 A First Violation: i.i.d Denied......Page 380
9.6.2 A Second Violation: Loosing Your Moments......Page 382
9.6.3 The Foraging Perspective......Page 389
9.7 From Patterns of Movement to Patterns of the Mind: Unveiling Observer's Hidden States......Page 394
9.7.1 Inverting Yarbus to Infer the Task......Page 397
9.7.2 Assessing Cognitive Impairments and Expertise......Page 400
9.8 A Final Note on the Use of Machine Learning in Visual Attention Modelling......Page 405
9.9 Suggested Readings......Page 406
9.10 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 407
References......Page 408
10 Temporal Methods for Eye Movement Analysis......Page 416
10.1 Introduction: Attention and Eye Movements......Page 418
10.2.1 Attention Research: Assumptions of Process Stability and Control......Page 419
10.2.2 Social Attention and Stimulus Saliency......Page 420
10.2.3 Social Attention in the Real World......Page 421
10.2.4 Summary......Page 422
10.3.1 Fundamental Measures for Eye Movements......Page 423
10.3.2 Spatial Analysis of Eye Movements......Page 424
10.3.3 Area of Interest Analysis of Eye Movements......Page 427
10.3.4 Temporal Analysis of Eye Movements......Page 429
10.4 Recurrence Quantification Analysis (RQA)......Page 430
10.4.2 Generalized Recurrence Quantification......Page 431
10.4.5 Recurrence Quantification Measures......Page 433
10.4.6 Selection of the Recurrence Radius......Page 438
10.4.7 Statistical Analyses of Recurrence Measures......Page 439
10.4.8 Discrimination of Gaze Patterns Using RQA......Page 440
10.4.9 Summary......Page 442
10.5.1 Edit Distance......Page 443
10.5.2 ScanMatch......Page 444
10.5.3 Sample-Based Measures......Page 445
10.5.5 Scasim......Page 446
10.5.6 MultiMatch......Page 447
10.5.7 Cross-Recurrence Quantification Analysis......Page 448
10.6 General Summary......Page 451
10.7 Suggested Readings......Page 452
Bibliography......Page 453
11 Pupillometry......Page 458
11.1.1 The Eye Pupil: An Introduction......Page 459
11.2 Historical Annotations......Page 460
11.2.1 The Anatomy of the Pupil......Page 463
11.2.2 The Physiology of Pupillary Changes......Page 464
11.3.2 Experimental Set-Up for Eye Tracking......Page 468
11.3.3 Key Factors in the Experiment and the Removal of Artifacts......Page 470
11.3.4 Advanced Analyses of the Pupil Signal......Page 475
11.4 Pupillometry in Psychology......Page 476
11.4.1 High-Level Effects on Pupillary Adjustments......Page 477
11.4.2 Emotion, Motivation, Attitude and the Pupil......Page 479
11.5 Mental Effort and the Pupil......Page 485
11.5.1 The Allocation of Mental Resources......Page 486
11.5.2 Cognitive Workload and the Pupil......Page 487
11.5.3 Pupillometry in Ecological Conditions......Page 489
11.5.4 Cognitive Abilities and the Pupil......Page 490
11.5.5 Consciousness and the Pupil......Page 492
11.5.6 Memory and the Pupil......Page 493
11.6.1 Pupil Dilations and the Brain Stem’s LC-NE System......Page 495
11.6.2 The Role of the LC-NE System in Perception and Attention......Page 496
11.6.3 The LC-NE System’s Role in Mental Effort......Page 497
11.6.4 The LC-NE System and Brain Network Interactions......Page 502
11.7 Suggested Readings......Page 503
11.8 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 504
Bibliography......Page 505
12 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Eye Movements: Introduction to Methods and Basic Phenomena......Page 512
12.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 513
12.2 Historical Annotations......Page 514
12.3 General Introduction to fMRI Methods......Page 515
12.3.1 A Brief Introduction to MR Signal Generation......Page 516
12.3.2 BOLD fMRI......Page 519
12.3.3 fMRI in Experimental Psychology......Page 520
12.3.4 Image Processing: Preparation for Analysis......Page 521
12.4 fMRI Experimental Design......Page 525
12.4.2 Event-Related Design......Page 526
12.5.1 Single-Subject Analysis......Page 527
12.5.2 Group Analysis......Page 528
12.5.3 Baselines in fMRI Research......Page 530
12.6.1 Recording Eye Movements......Page 531
12.6.2 Imaging Deep Brain Structures with fMRI......Page 534
12.6.3 Imaging the Cerebellum with FMRI......Page 536
12.6.4 Influence of Experimental Design on Effects of Interest......Page 538
12.6.5 Strengths of Ocular Motor fMRI Research......Page 541
12.7.1 Prosaccade and Antisaccade Tasks......Page 542
12.7.2 Gap-Overlap Task......Page 544
12.7.3 Memory Guided (Delayed Response) Task......Page 546
12.7.4 Smooth Pursuit Tasks......Page 547
12.8 Conclusions......Page 548
12.9 Suggested Readings......Page 549
12.10 Questions to Students......Page 550
References......Page 551
13 Eye Movement Recordings in Natural Settings......Page 558
13.1 Introduction......Page 559
13.3 A Brief History of Mobile Eye Tracking......Page 562
13.4 Buying or Building a Mobile Eye Tracker......Page 569
13.5.1 Eye Detection......Page 571
13.5.2 Gaze Estimation......Page 572
13.6 Practical Considerations for Mobile Eye Tracking......Page 574
13.6.1 What Can Be Studied in the Real World?......Page 577
13.6.2 Calibrating Eye Trackers in Natural Settings......Page 579
13.6.3 How Light Conditions Influence Eye Tracking Data......Page 581
13.6.5 Estimating Gaze During Extreme Eye Rotations......Page 583
13.6.6 The Problems of Changes in Pupil Size and Shape......Page 585
13.6.7 Parallax Error: The Challenge of Tracking Across Changes in Depth......Page 588
13.7.1 Identifying Problematic Sections of Data......Page 590
13.7.2 Eye Event Detection in Mobile Data......Page 592
13.7.3 Measures of Eye Movement Behaviour in Mobile Eye Tracking Data......Page 594
13.8 Emerging and Future Directions in Mobile Eye Tracking......Page 596
13.9 Questions the Reader Should Be Able to Answer......Page 597
13.10 Suggested Readings......Page 598
References......Page 599
14 Eye Movements in Primates—An Experimental Approach......Page 602
14.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 603
14.2 Historical Annotations......Page 604
14.3.1 Oculomotor Behavior Is Functionally Similar in Macaques and Humans......Page 605
14.3.2 Humans and Non-human Primates Have Homologous Neural Circuits in Oculomotor Control......Page 608
14.3.3 Organization of Primate Superior Colliculus......Page 610
14.4 Neuronal Recording in Behaving Non-human Primates Is a Powerful Tool for Understanding Oculomotor Function......Page 613
14.4.1 Training Non-human Primates on Oculomotor Tasks......Page 617
14.4.2 Neural Circuit Properties Can Be Investigated Using Electrophysiological Techniques......Page 619
14.4.3 Neural Circuit Properties Can Be Investigated by Cryogenic Deactivation......Page 622
14.4.4 Establishing Links Between Neural Activity and Behavior......Page 625
14.5 Investigating the Role of Lateral PFC in Inhibitory Saccade Control Using a Systems Neuroscience Approach......Page 626
14.5.1 Neural Activity in the SC Differs Between Pro and Antisaccades and Is Consistent with Inhibitory Influence......Page 627
14.5.2 PFC as the Source of Inhibitory Top-Down Control and Potential Mechanisms......Page 630
14.5.3 The Response Properties of PFC Neurons Are not Sufficent to Engage Inhibitory Control......Page 631
14.5.4 Cryogenic Deactivation of PFC Reveals Changes in SC Activity Inconsistent with the Inhibition Model......Page 633
14.6 Putting It All Together......Page 636
14.7 Suggested Readings......Page 637
Bibliography......Page 638
Applications in Clinical Settings......Page 641
15 Typical and Atypical Development of Eye Movements......Page 642
15.2 Historical Annotations......Page 643
15.3.1 Why Should We Study Typical Development?......Page 645
15.3.2 How Can We Study Developmental Processes?......Page 646
15.3.3 What Can Eye Movement Studies Tell Us About Typical Development?......Page 647
15.3.4 Typical Development of Eye Movements......Page 648
15.4.1 What Is “Atypical Development” and Why Is It Important to Study It?......Page 667
15.4.2 How Can We Study Eye Movements in Atypically Developing Populations?......Page 668
15.4.3 Atypical Development of Eye Movements......Page 671
15.4.4 Summary Regarding Atypical Development......Page 694
15.6 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 695
Bibliography......Page 696
16 Eye Movements in Psychiatry......Page 709
16.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 710
16.2 Historical Annotations......Page 711
16.3 Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements......Page 712
16.3.1 What Are the Differences from Healthy Controls? What Is the Diagnostic Sensitivity?......Page 713
16.3.2 What Is the Diagnostic Specificity?......Page 716
16.3.3 What Is the Relation to Clinical Characteristics and Medication Status?......Page 718
16.3.4 What Role Do Heritability and Genetic Factors Play?......Page 719
16.3.5 What Is the Neurobiological Substrate?......Page 721
16.4.1 What Are the Differences from Healthy Controls? What Is the Diagnostic Sensitivity?......Page 725
16.4.2 What Is the Diagnostic Specificity?......Page 728
16.4.3 What Is the Relation to Clinical Characteristics and Medication Status?......Page 731
16.4.4 What Role Do Heritability and Genetic Factors Play?......Page 733
16.4.5 What Is the Neurobiological Substrate?......Page 737
16.5 Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 741
16.6 Suggested Readings......Page 743
16.7 Questions that Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 744
References......Page 745
17 Eye Movements in Neurology......Page 755
17.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 756
17.3 Eye Movements in Stroke......Page 762
17.3.1 Mesencephalic Syndromes......Page 764
17.3.2 Pontine Syndromes......Page 765
17.3.3 Medullary Syndromes......Page 767
17.4 Eye Movement Disorders After Cortical Lesions......Page 768
17.5.1 Parkinson’s Disease......Page 771
17.5.2 Progressive Supranuclear Palsy......Page 772
17.5.4 Huntington’s Disease......Page 773
17.5.6 Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)......Page 774
17.5.8 Dementia with Lewy-Bodies......Page 775
17.6 Eye Movements in Multiple Sclerosis......Page 776
17.7 Conclusions......Page 778
Bibliography......Page 779
18 Eye Movements as Biomarkers to Evaluate Pharmacological Effects on Brain Systems......Page 781
18.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 782
18.3 Methods and Approaches in Pharmacology......Page 783
18.3.1 What Is Pharmacology? What Is Psychopharmacology?......Page 784
18.3.2 Methodological Issues in Pharmacological Studies of Eye Movements......Page 786
18.3.4 Standardization: General Recommendations......Page 793
18.3.5 Repeated Testing and Practice Effects......Page 794
18.4 Findings from Pharmacological Effects on Eye Movements in Healthy Individuals......Page 795
18.4.1 Eye Movement Tasks Can Be Used to Monitor Side Effects of Drugs......Page 796
18.4.2 Eye Movement Measures Are Studied as Treatment Targets in Model Systems of Disease......Page 800
18.4.3 Eye Movements Are Used as Biomarkers for the Study of Cognitive Enhancement......Page 801
18.5 Findings from Pharmacological Effects on Eye Movements in Patient Groups......Page 804
18.5.1 Effects of Antipsychotic Medications in Schizophrenia......Page 807
18.5.2 Effects of Stimulants in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)......Page 812
18.5.3 Effects of Dopamine Agonists in Parkinson’s Disease......Page 813
18.7 Suggested Readings......Page 814
18.8 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 815
Bibliography......Page 816
Applications in Industrial Settings......Page 823
19 Neuromarketing......Page 824
19.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 825
19.1.1 Three Arguments for Neuromarketing......Page 826
19.1.2 How Eye Movement Research Relates to Other Neuromarketing Disciplines......Page 828
19.2 Historical Annotations......Page 829
19.3 Getting Practical: The Eye Movement Research Ecosystem......Page 832
19.3.1 Technical Innovations Unique to Neuromarketing......Page 833
19.3.3 Applications and Typical Use Cases in Commercial Research......Page 837
19.4.1 Measuring Ad Contact—Countering Ad Fraud and Delivering Ad Sales Arguments......Page 838
19.4.2 Optimization of Creative Executions—The Ad Itself......Page 842
19.4.3 Understanding Changing Media-Usage Patterns (Multiscreen)......Page 848
19.5 Applications at the Point of Sale......Page 849
19.5.1 Packaging Design—Optimizing Perception of Product Features and the Brand......Page 850
19.5.2 On the Shelf—Finding a Product and Adapting to the Mental Model of the Shopper......Page 852
19.5.3 The Store—Orientation and Point of Purchase Materials......Page 854
19.6 Conclusions......Page 855
19.8 Suggested Readings......Page 856
Bibliography......Page 857
20 Neuroeconomics......Page 861
20.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 862
20.2 Introduction to Neuroeconomics: Historical Annotations and Current State......Page 863
20.2.1 Standard Research Paradigms to Capture Economic Decision Making......Page 864
20.2.2 From Rational Choice to Process Models of Decision Making......Page 867
20.2.3 Methods and Directions in Neuroeconomics......Page 869
20.3 What Can Oculography Tell Us About Economic Decision Making?......Page 871
20.4 Illustrative Examples: Behavioural Studies......Page 873
20.4.1 Preference Elicitation......Page 874
20.4.2 Eliciting Strategic Considerations......Page 876
20.5 Illustrative Examples: Neurophysiological Studies......Page 878
20.7 Suggested Readings......Page 881
References......Page 882
21 Web Usability and Eyetracking......Page 887
21.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 888
21.3.1 Definitions and Aspects of Web Usability?......Page 889
21.3.2 Why User Experience Research Is Useful?......Page 891
21.4 User Experience Research and Eyetracking......Page 892
21.4.1 User Centred Design and Eyetracking......Page 893
21.5.1 Advantages, Caveats, and Myths About Eyetracking in UX Research......Page 895
21.5.2 Uses of Eyetracking Data in UX/Usability Testing......Page 901
21.6 Performing a Usability/UX Test......Page 907
21.6.2 The Usability Lab......Page 908
21.6.3 Pre-test Considerations/Activities/Planning......Page 909
21.6.4 Testing......Page 914
21.7.2 Eyetracking Comparison of Potential Homepages......Page 923
21.8 Outlook and Conclusions......Page 924
21.9 Suggested Readings......Page 927
References......Page 928
22 Eye Movements in Vehicle Control......Page 932
22.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 933
22.2 Historical Annotations......Page 935
22.3 Structuring the Driving Task......Page 936
22.4 Cognitive Processes in Driving......Page 937
22.4.1 Step 1: Information Selection......Page 938
22.4.2 Step 2: Information Integration......Page 939
22.5 What the Driver’s Eye Movements Can Tell About Cognitive Processes......Page 940
22.6.1 How Eye Movements Guide Lane Keeping......Page 943
22.6.2 How Drivers Change Lanes......Page 945
22.6.3 The Role of Visual Distraction, Workload and Fatigue......Page 949
22.6.4 The Role of Driving Experience and Aging......Page 953
22.7 Experimental Design and Common Eye-Tracking Measures......Page 955
22.7.1 Eye-Tracking Measures......Page 958
22.7.2 Areas of Interest......Page 959
22.8.2 Data Synchronization......Page 961
22.8.4 Lighting......Page 962
22.9 Conclusions......Page 963
22.11 Questions Students Should Be Able to Answer......Page 964
References......Page 965
23 Eye Movements and Human-Computer Interaction......Page 973
23.1 Introduction and Learning Objectives......Page 974
23.1.1 Human-Computer Interaction......Page 975
23.1.2 Gaze-Based Human-Computer Interaction......Page 976
23.2.1 Early Experimental Eye-Controlled Communication Aids......Page 978
23.2.2 First Commercial VOG Systems......Page 979
23.3.1 Eye Tracker as an Input Device......Page 982
23.3.2 Benefits and Challenges of Gaze Input......Page 983
23.4.1 Fixations and Dwell Time......Page 985
23.4.2 Saccades and Gaze Gestures......Page 986
23.4.3 Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements for Interaction......Page 988
23.4.4 Voluntary Vergence......Page 989
23.4.6 Voluntary Blinks and Winks......Page 990
23.5 Design Considerations......Page 991
23.5.1 Controllability and Non-interfering Design......Page 993
23.5.2 Feedback and Visibility of the System Status......Page 995
23.5.3 Layout, Color Design, and Typography......Page 997
23.5.4 Acceptability, Social Norms, and User Experience......Page 999
23.6 Development of Gaze-Responsive Applications and Web Pages......Page 1000
23.6.1 Towards Tracker-Independent Applications......Page 1001
23.6.2 Gaze on the Web......Page 1002
23.7 Conclusion and Future Directions......Page 1004
23.8 Key Events and Suggested Readings......Page 1005
Bibliography......Page 1006