Extended Biocontrol

Preface
Introduction
Crops Need to Be Protected - But Differently
Extended Biocontrol: A Fresh Look at an Age-Old Approach
The Biocontrol Arsenal
The Different Types of Biological Control
Microbial Control
Botanical Biopesticides
Semiochemicals
From the Lab to the Field
Challenges to Be Tackled
Combining Extended Biocontrol with Other Plant-Health Management Methods
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Biological Control: Theoretical Foundations and Applications
Chapter 1: Integrative Systematics and Adaptations of Natural Enemies to Their Hosts
1.1 Introduction
1.2 General Remarks on the Diversity of Macroorganisms for Biological Control
1.2.1 Taxonomic Diversity
1.2.2 Antagonistic Interactions Between Natural Enemies and Target Pests
1.3 The Underlying Challenges of Identifying Beneficial Macroorganisms
1.3.1 Identification Issues
1.3.2 Integrative Taxonomy: A Core Discipline
1.3.3 Other Benefits of Molecular Diagnostics
1.4 A Deeper Look at Three Cross-Cutting Eco-Evolutionary Themes
1.4.1 Ecological Specialization in Natural Enemies
1.4.2 Behavioural Adaptations in Natural Enemies: Finding Targets
1.4.3 Diversity of Symbionts in Natural Enemies
1.5 Conclusion
Chapter 2: The Biology of Introduced Populations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Ideas That Inspire
2.2.1 Science and Technology
2.2.2 Finding Equilibrium
2.2.3 Propagule Pressure
2.3 The Laws of Small Numbers
2.4 Lost Benefits at Small Numbers: The Allee Effect
2.4.1 Definitions
2.4.2 Allee Effect and Classical Biological Control
2.4.3 Allee Effect, Autocidal Control and Mating Disruption
2.5 Lower Genetic Diversity in Small Populations
2.6 Conclusion
Chapter 3: Classical Biological Control
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition, History and Evolution
3.3 Foreign Exploration
3.4 Importing Exotic Material and Performing Laboratory Evaluations
3.5 Environmental Release of Biological Control Agents
3.6 Conclusion
Chapter 4: Augmentative Biological Control Using Entomophagous Arthropods
4.1 Background and Definitions
4.1.1 The Blurred Line Between Inoculation and Inundation
4.1.2 A Brief History of Augmentative Biological Control
4.2 Current Challenges
4.2.1 Mass Production of Biological Control Agents
4.2.2 Business Models
4.2.3 Non-target Effects
4.3 Ways to Improve Augmentative Biological Control
4.3.1 Genetic Improvement of Biological Control Agents
4.3.2 Improving Mass Production
4.3.3 Resource Supplementation
4.3.4 Population Dynamics
4.3.5 Entomovectoring
4.4 Conclusion
Chapter 5: Sterile Insect Technique: Principles, Deployment and Prospects
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Technical Basics
5.2.1 Mass Rearing the Target Insect
5.2.2 Sex Separation
5.2.3 Sterilization
5.2.4 Releases and Monitoring
5.3 Conditions of Application
5.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of SIT
5.4.1 Strengths
5.4.2 Limits
5.5 Future Research Avenues
5.5.1 Technical Improvements
5.5.2 Integration and Synergy
5.5.3 The Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT): A Complementary Approach
5.6 Environmental and Sociological Implications
5.7 Insects and Society
5.7.1 Transdisciplinary Synergy
5.7.2 Regulatory Framework
5.7.3 Economic Integration
5.8 Conclusion
Part II: Stimulating Natural Pest Control in Agricultural Landscapes: Theoretical and Operational Insights into Conservation B...
Chapter 6: Community Ecology, Food Webs and Natural Pest Control
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Interactions Within Communities
6.3 Correlations Between the Horizontal Diversity of Natural Enemy Communities and Natural Pest Control
6.4 The Effect of Vertical Diversity of Communities on Natural Pest Control
6.4.1 Trophic Cascades
6.4.2 Trophic Structure and Network Stability
6.4.3 Modelling Ecological Network Assembly
6.4.4 Research Possibilities on Interaction Networks
6.5 Metacommunities and Landscape Ecology
6.5.1 Metacommunity Theory
6.5.2 Landscape Ecology: Landscape Organization Patterns and Ecological Processes
6.6 Conclusion
Chapter 7: Agroecological Management of Insect Pests from Field to Landscape
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Principles of Conservation Biological Control
7.3 Effects of Farming Practices at Field Level
7.3.1 Plant Diversity over Space and Time
7.3.2 Nitrogen Fertilization
7.3.3 Tillage Practices
7.3.4 Organic Farming
7.4 Biological Pest Control at the Landscape Scale
7.4.1 Transition Areas Between Cultivated and Non-cultivated Habitats
7.4.2 Landscape Structure and Natural Pest Control
7.5 Conclusion
Chapter 8: Biological Control for Weed Management
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Weed Control Using Sown Plants
8.2.1 Competition and Allelopathy
8.2.2 Weed Control Using Sown Plants
8.2.2.1 Field Management
8.2.2.2 Field Margins and Grass Strips
8.2.2.3 Landscape Composition and Configuration
8.3 Control by Seed-Eating Organisms
8.3.1 Weed Seed Predation
8.3.2 Seed Predation and Weed Control
8.3.3 Controlling Weed Seed Predation
8.3.3.1 Field Management
8.3.3.2 Field Margins
8.3.3.3 Landscape Composition and Configuration
8.4 Conclusion
Part III: Microorganisms and Biological Control
Chapter 9: Plant Microbiota: Diversity, Transmission and Function
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Microbial Diversity According to Habitats
9.3 Microbiota Assembly and Transmission Processes
9.4 Impact of the Plant Microbiota on Host Fitness
9.5 Leveraging the Microbiota to Improve Plant Growth and Health
Chapter 10: Agroecological Protection to Support Plant Health: Where the Microbiota Fits In
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Agricultural Production and Pest Management
10.3 New Levers to Explore: Plant-Microbiota Interactions and Their Role in Agricultural Ecosystems
10.4 Connecting Microbiota and Agroecological Practices
Chapter 11: Microorganisms as Biocontrol Products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biological Control: An Array of Microorganisms Described
11.3 Commercial Products
11.4 Mode of Action of Microbial Biocontrol Agents
11.4.1 Antibiosis
11.4.2 Hyperparasitism
11.4.3 Competing for Nutrients and Space
11.4.4 Interference with Pathogenicity
11.4.5 Modifying Plant Leaf Surface Properties
11.4.6 Induction of Host Plant Resistance
11.4.7 Combined Modes of Action
11.5 Factors Affecting the Efficacy of Microbial Biocontrol Agents
11.5.1 Local Environmental Context
11.5.2 Farming Practices
11.5.3 Biocontrol Product Quality and Method of Application
11.5.4 Variability of Target Pests
11.6 Conclusion
Chapter 12: The Role of Microbial Metabolites in Biological Control
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Rhamnolipids: Multi-faceted Compounds
12.3 Lipopeptides: Structural and Activity Biodiversity
12.4 Polyketides Synthesized by Biological Control Agents of the Genus Pseudomonas
12.5 Conclusion
Part IV: Botanical Biopesticides
Chapter 13: Botanical Pesticides as Biocontrol Products
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Botanical Biopesticides and Organic Agriculture
13.3 Description of Botanical Biopesticides Currently Used as Biocontrol Products in France
13.3.1 Pyrethrins
13.3.2 Vegetable Oils: The Example of Rapeseed Oil
13.3.3 Essential Oils from Aromatic Plants
13.3.4 Fatty Acids: The Example of Pelargonic Acid
13.3.5 Sulphur Compounds in the Brassicaceae Family and Allium Genus
13.3.6 Maltodextrin
13.4 Conclusion
Chapter 14: Challenges in Developing Botanical Biopesticides for Pest Control
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Applied Research Process for Compounds Based on Plant-Pest Interactions
14.3 Technical Obstacles to Overcome
14.3.1 Difficulties in Standardizing Plant Extract Production
14.3.2 Optimizing the Formulation for Effective and Durable Botanical Biopesticides
14.4 Side Effects to Be Considered
14.4.1 Pest Resistance to Natural Plant Extracts
14.4.2 Environmental Impact of These Products
14.5 Are Botanical Biopesticides Safe for Humans?
Part V: Semiochemicals and Pest Control
Chapter 15: Semiochemicals and Communication in Insects
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Semiochemicals Regulate Many Insect Behaviours
15.2.1 Intraspecific Signals
15.2.2 Interspecific Signals and Cues
15.3 An Extraordinary Diversity of Semiochemicals
15.3.1 Volatile Substances
15.3.2 Non-volatile Substances
15.4 Methods for Identifying Chemical Signals and Analysing Their Perception
15.4.1 Collecting Chemical Signals
15.4.2 Mixture Separation and Determination of Molecular Structure
15.4.3 Study of the Biological Effect of Semiochemicals
15.4.3.1 Electrophysiology
15.4.3.2 Studying Insect Behavioural Responses to Chemical Stimuli
15.5 Conclusion
Chapter 16: Anatomy and Functioning of the Insect Chemosensory System
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Neurophysiological Organization of Chemosensory Systems
16.2.1 Chemoreceptor Organs and Sensilla
16.2.2 Chemoreceptor Neurons
16.2.3 Brain Centres of Chemosensation
16.3 Molecular Mechanisms of Chemosensory Detection
16.3.1 Chemosensory Receptors
16.3.2 Odorant Receptors (ORs)
16.3.3 Gustatory Receptors (GRs)
16.3.4 Ionotropic Receptors (IRs)
16.3.5 Soluble Proteins
16.3.6 Identifying Chemosensory Receptors in Insects
16.3.7 Functional Studies of Odorant Receptors
16.4 Neural Coding of Chemical Signals
16.5 Chemosensory Plasticity
16.5.1 Olfactory Plasticity
16.5.2 Gustatory Plasticity
16.6 Conclusion
Chapter 17: Semiochemicals and Insect Control
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Different Uses of Semiochemicals for Insect Control
17.2.1 Insect Pest Population Monitoring
17.2.2 Mass Trapping and the Attract-and-Kill Approach
17.2.3 Mating Disruption
17.2.4 The Push-Pull Strategy with Companion Plants
17.2.5 Olfactory ``Resistant´´ Cultivars
17.3 Future Prospects
17.3.1 Better Exploiting Plant-Insect and Plant-Plant Communication
17.3.2 Microorganisms and Olfaction
17.3.3 Reverse Chemical Ecology: Understanding the Molecular Mechanisms of Olfactory Detection
17.4 Conclusion
Part VI: Conditions for Successful Biocontrol and Its Large-Scale Deployment
Chapter 18: The Challenge of Biocontrol Deployment
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Field-Scale Biocontrol Deployment: Success Factors
18.2.1 Introduced Macroorganisms and Microorganisms
18.2.2 Management of Pest Regulation Services Provided by Native and Introduced Macro- and Microorganisms
18.2.3 Natural Substances (of Animal, Plant or Mineral Origin) and Semiochemicals (Pheromones, Kairomones)
18.3 Area-Wide Deployment of Biocontrol
18.3.1 The Deployment of Certain Methods Must Be Considered at an Area-Wide Level
18.3.2 Managing Ecosystem Services at the Landscape Scale
18.3.3 Biocontrol Depends on Area-Wide Pest Management Strategies to Prevent Epidemics
18.3.4 How Sustainable Would Extended Biocontrol Deployment Be?
18.4 Diffusing Innovation Across the Value Chain
Chapter 19: Biocontrol in France: Prospects for Structuring a Developing Sector
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Talking About Biocontrol: An Analysis Based on Scientific, Media and Institutional Discourse
19.3 The Role of Biocontrol in Agricultural Processing
19.3.1 The Green Revolution
19.3.2 Externalities
19.3.3 Markets and Intermediaries
19.4 Can Biocontrol Be Reduced to a Product Format?
19.5 Regulation: An Unsuitable Obstacle for Biocontrol Players, Uncertainty for Civil Society
19.6 Biocontrol and Placement on the Market: Moving Towards Pluralist Business Models
19.6.1 Classical Biological Control and Inoculation Biological Control: Towards an Alternative Business Model
19.6.2 Conservation Biological Control: A Focus on Services
19.6.3 Inundation Biological Control: Translating the Conventional Model
19.7 Conclusion
Chapter 20: Integrating Biocontrol into Cropping System Design
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Systemic Agriculture Concepts and Methods
20.2.1 Cropping Means Implementing Practices in a Systemic Way
20.2.2 Growing Crops with Biocontrol Means Redesigning the Agricultural System
20.3 The Importance of the Systemic Nature of Biocontrol Solutions: Some Examples
20.3.1 In Horticulture, Releases of Organisms That Must Be Supported
20.3.2 In Field Crops, Developing Biocontrol Means Rethinking the Whole System
20.3.3 Inundative Releases of Trichogramma and Supporting Their Populations
20.3.4 Rethinking the Field and the Surrounding Area for Aphid Control Means a Comprehensive Redesign
20.3.4.1 In the Field Itself
20.3.4.2 Around the Field
20.4 New Issues, New Methods and New Regulations
20.4.1 Biocontrol Use Calls for Revising How Cropping Systems and the Solutions Themselves Are Evaluated
20.4.2 Reconsider How to Design and Include Farmers´ Innovations
20.4.3 Revise Economic Tools to Promote Biocontrol in Cropping Systems
20.5 Conclusion
Chapter 21: New Technologies for the Deployment of Extended Biocontrol
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Seeds: A Target of Treatment and a Biocontrol Application Vector
21.2.1 The Strategic Importance of Seeds
21.2.2 Activating Immunity in Seed Plants and Seeds: A Lever for Extended Biocontrol
21.2.3 Seeds as a Target and Vector for Biocontrol Solutions
21.3 The Challenge of Formulating Biocontrol Substances and Organisms
21.3.1 Formulation: An Overview
21.3.2 Formulation for Extended Biocontrol: A Challenge for Industry
21.3.3 The Future of Formulation in Extended Biocontrol
21.4 Agricultural Equipment, Robotics and Digital Technology to Optimize Biocontrol
21.5 Conclusion
Part VII: Is Biological Control a Sustainable Crop Protection Method?
Chapter 22: Health and Biodiversity Risks Linked to a Major Bioinsecticide: Bacillus thuringiensis
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Bt Biopesticides
22.3 Possible Links to Health Risks Associated with Bt Products
22.4 Possible Sources of Bt Contamination
22.5 Persistence of Bt in the Environment and the Digestive Tract
22.6 The Environmental Impacts of Bt
22.7 Conclusion
Chapter 23: Can Pests Develop Resistance to Biocontrol Products?
23.1 Many Biocontrol Agents on the Market, Variable Efficacy in the Field
23.2 Pest Adaptation to Plant Protection Methods
23.3 Proven Cases of Pest Resistance to Biocontrol Agents
23.4 Risk of Crop Pests and Diseases Developing Resistance to Biocontrol Agents
23.4.1 Estimating Diversity in the Level of Pest Resistance to Biocontrol Agents
23.4.2 Assessing Pests´ Adaptive Capacity to Biocontrol Agents
23.4.3 Impact of the Mode of Action of Biocontrol Agents on Their Durability
23.5 Conclusion
Acronyms
Glossary
References