Plants are autotrophs and sessile, while animals are heterotrophs and motile. Sessility has imposed on plants 94% hermaphroditism, 23% selfing, 3% polyploidization and 39% clonality, in comparison to < 5% herma-phroditism, < 1% selfing and 2% clonality in motile animals. Whereas plants consist of 374,000 species but 1,664 variety/species, animals comprise 1,543,196 species and 210 variety/species. Hence, plants have undergone variety diversity, while animals have species diversity. In animals and plants, the species ratio is reduced from 4.1 animals : 1.0 plant to 1.4 for pollinating animals : 1.0 pollinated plants. In pollination, animals are benefited dietarily but plants are cross pollinated, generating new gene combinations – the raw material for evolution and speciation. For the reduced species diversity in plants, reasons are traced to 90% hermaphroditism, ~ 23% selfing and 39% clonality. Clonality decreases from 100% in 6-7 tissue typed sponges and 3 tissue typed algae drastically to 0.7% in 60 tissue typed worms but gradually to ~ 23% in 60 tissued typed angiosperms. About 12-15, 5-8 and 77-80% of all animal and plant species are distributed in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats, respectively. Animals have conserved the ‘right’ sequence of gametogenesis but plants have gone through a ‘wrong’ sequence prior to settling with right one albeit with double fertilization in angiosperms. Both animals and plants are 80% male heterogametics. Only 0.5% of them can afford semelparity. While 20 and 57% angiosperms are perennial trees and herbs, annual herbs make up 23% only. In all of them, 85, > 19 and < 1% are pollinated by fast flying animals, wind and water, respectively. Increasing pollen load enhances fruit- and seed-set. In contrast to animals, the life cycle of plants is direct but complicated. Unlike animals, plants have greatly contributed to weathering of rocks and the atmospheric gas composition during the geological past. From dormant spores and seeds of plants, life can be restored after thousands of years.
Author(s): T. J. Pandian
Publisher: CRC Press/Science Publishers
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 359
City: Boca Raton
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
1. General Introduction
Introduction
1.1 Classification and Evolution
1.2 Life Cycles
1.3 Species and Diversity
1.4 Racial/Variety Diversity
1.5 Numerical Diversity
Part A: Environmental Factors
2. Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis
Introduction
2.1 Photosynthesis
2.2 Nitrogen Acquisition
2.2.1 Direct Acquisition
2.2.2 Indirect N2-fixation
2.3 Secondary Plant Metabolites
2.3.1 Beneficial SPMs
2.3.2 Allelopathy
3. Phototrophic Heterotrophy
Introduction
3.1 Carnivorous Plants
3.2 Epiphytes
3.3 Parasitic Plants
4. Spatial Distribution
Introduction
4.1 Horizontal Distribution
4.2 Aquatic Habitat
4.3 Montane Habitat
4.4 Harsh Habitat: The Deserts
Part B: Life History Traits
B1: Sexuality
5 .Monoecy: Reproductive Systems
Introduction
5.1 Algae and Sexuality
5.2 Systems and Technical Terms
5.3 Escapade from Selfing
6. Dioecy and Sex Ratio
Introduction
6.1 Land Plants
6.2 Sex Ratio
7 .Polyploids – Hybrids – Grafts
Introduction
7.1 Polyploidy: Incidence and Types
7.2 Beneficial Polyploids
7.3 Hybridization
7.4 Graft Hybridization
7.5 Pollinator Shift
7.6 Diversity and Speciation
8. Parthenogenesis – Apomixis
Introduction
8.1 Types and Incidence
8.2 Genes and Transgenics
9. Clonals and Stem Cells
Introduction
9.1 Clonal Forms
9.2 Taxonomic Distribution
9.3 Special Cases
9.4 Stemness and Meristem
9.5 Meristems and Stem Cells
9.6 Tissue Types and Clonality
9.7 Tissue Culture—The New Era
Part C: Gametogenesis and Fertilization
10. Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis
Introduction
10.1 Haplontic Gametogenesis
10.2 Land Colonization: The Pioneers
10.3 Gametes and Quantification
11. Heterogamety – Sex Genes
Introduction
11.1 The Non-Angiosperms
11.2 Dioecy and Heterogamety
12. Annuals – Herbs – Semelpares
Introduction
12.1 Annuals and Perennials
12.2 Herbs and Trees
12.3 Resource Allocation
12.4 Semelparity and Iteroparity
12.5 Taxonomic Distribution
13. Pollination and Coevolution
Introduction
13.1 Biotic and Abiotic Pollination
13.2 Zoophilous Pollination
13.2.1 Pollens and Stigmas
13.2.2 Pollen Viability and Vigor
13.2.3 Pollinators and Pollinated Plants
13.2.4 Attraction and Rewards
13.2.5 Pollination and Pollen Limitation
13.3 Wind Pollination – Anemophily
13.4 Aquatic Angiosperms – Hydrophily
13.5 Coevolution and Diversity
14. Self- and Cross-Fertilization
Introduction
14.1 Algae
14.2 Pioneering Land Plants
14.3 Aquatic Gamete Transfer
14.4 Transfer of Pollens
14.5 Cleistogamy
14.6 Genes and Incompatibility
14.7 Quantitative Estimation
15. Spores – Seeds – Dispersal
Introduction
15.1 Algae
15.2 Bryophytes
15.3 Tracheophytes
15.4 Gymnosperms
15.5 Angiosperms
Part D: Germination and Development
16. Germination and Recruitment
Introduction
16.1 Algae
16.2 Bryophytes and Tracheophytes
16.3 Flowering Plants
16.4 Germination Stages
17. Brooders and Vivipares
Introduction
17.1 Taxonomic Distribution
17.2 Characteristics of Viviparity
17.3 Types of Viviparity
18. Sex Determination
Introduction
18.1 Lower Plants
18.2 Flowering Plants
19. Hormones and Differentiation
Introduction
19.1 Phytohormones
19.2 Vertebrate Hormones
19.3 Characteristics of Plant Hormones
Part E: Past, Present and Future
20. Past: Weathering and Oxygenation
Introduction
20.1 Geological Time Table
20.2 Weathering and Landscape
20.3 Oxygenation of Atmosphere
21. Present: Conservation and Dormancy
Introduction
21.1 Dormancy
21.1.1 Algal Spores
21.1.2 Spores of Bryophytes
21.1.3 Fern Spores
21.1.4 Seeds of Angiosperms
21.2 The Longest Dormancy
21.3 In‑situ and Ex‑situ Conservation
22. Future: Climate Change
Introduction
22.1 Air-Water Interaction
22.2 Algae
22.3 Bryophytes and Ferns
22.4 Flowering Plants
22.5 Pollinators and Pollinizers
22.6 Green Shoots and New Hopes
23. References
Author Index
Species Index
Subject Index
Author’s Biography
