Essentials of Food Science

Preface
About the Authors
Contents
Part I: Introduction to Food Components
1: Evaluation of Food Quality
Introduction
Aspects of Food Quality
Appearance
Texture
Flavor
Taste Sensitivity
Sensory Evaluation
Sensory Testing Procedure
Sensory Tests
Objective Evaluation
Food Rheology
Objective Measurement of Texture
Comparison of Subjective and Objective Evaluation
Conclusion
Glossary
References
2: Water
Introduction
Chemistry of Water
Specific Heat and Latent Heat of Water
Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
Vapor Pressure
Boiling Point
Water as a Dispersing Medium
Solution
Colloidal Dispersion
Suspension
Free, Bound, and Entrapped Water
Water Activity (Aw)
Role of Water in Food Preservation and Shelf Life of Food
Water Hardness and Treatments
Beverage Consumption Ranking
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
Part II: Carbohydrates in Food
3: Carbohydrates in Food: An Introduction
Introduction
Monosaccharides
Examples of Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Glycosidic Bonds
Examples of Disaccharides
Various Properties of Sugars
Sweetness
Formation of Solutions and Syrups
Body and Mouthfeel
Fermentation
Preservatives
Reducing Sugars
Caramelization
Sugar Alcohols
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
Dextrins and Dextrans
Starch
Pectins and Other Polysaccharides
Conclusion
Glossary
Bibliography
4: Starches in Food
Introduction
Starch Sources in the Diet
Starch Structure and Composition
Gelatinization Process in Cooking
Factors Requiring Control in Gelatinization
Gelation or Setting of Gelatinized Starch Pastes During Cooling
Amylose
Amylopectin
Gels
Retrogradation
Syneresis
Separating Agents and Lump Formation
Modified Starches
What Is Modified Starch and Why Is It Modified?
Waxy Starches
Starch Uses in Food Systems
Cooking with Starch
Appearance
Use of a Double Boiler
Tempering
White Sauce
Liquid
Nutritive Value of Starch
Resistant Starch vs. Modified Starch?
Safety of Starches
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Bibliography
5: Pectins and Gums
Introduction
Pectic Substances
Pectins
Pectin Gel Formation
Pectin Sources
Some Principles of Making Jelly
Gums
Seed Gums
Plant Exudates
Microbial Exudates
Seaweed Polysaccharides
Synthetic Gums
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Bibliography
6: Grains
Introduction
Cereals Definition
Structure of Cereal Grains
Composition of Cereal Grains
Common Cereal Grains and Their Uses
Wheat
Rice
Corn
Other Less Common Cereal Grains
Barley
Malt
Millet
Oats
Quinoa
Rye
Triticale
Non-Cereal “Flours”
Cooking Cereals
Breakfast Cereals
Pasta
Nutritive Value of Grains
Safety of Grains
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
7: Vegetables and Fruits
Introduction
Structure and Composition of Cell Tissue
Chemical Composition of Plant Material
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
Phytochemicals (more in Appendices)
Turgor Pressure
Pigments and Effects of Additional Substances
Chlorophyll
Carotenoids
Anthocyanin
Anthoxanthin
Other Groups of Pigments
Betalains
Tannins
Flavor Compounds
Allium
Brassica
Organic Acids
Concentrates, Extracts, Oils, Spices, and Herbs
Vegetable Classifications
Harvesting and Postharvest Changes
Ripening
Enzymatic Oxidative Browning
Cooking Effect
Water Retention/Turgor
Color
Texture
Flavor
Nutritive Value
Fruits—Unique Preparation and Cooking Principles
Fruit Preparation
Fruit Juices and Juice Drinks
Grading Vegetables and Fruits
Organically Grown Vegetables and Fruits
Biotechnology (More in Appendices)
Irradiation
Vegetarian Food Choices
Labeling of Vegetables and Fruits
Nutrition Facts
Label Terms
Nutritive Value of Vegetables and Fruits
Nutrient Losses
Safety of Vegetables and Fruits
Conclusion
Vegetables
Nutri-Facts
Update
References
Bibliography
Glossary
Part III: Proteins in Food
8: Proteins in Food: An Introduction
Introduction
Amino Acids
General Structure of Amino Acids
Categories of Amino Acids
Protein Structure and Conformation
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure
Interactions Involved in Protein Structure and Conformation
Reactions and Properties of Proteins
Amphoteric
Isoelectric Point
Water-Binding Capacity
Salting-In and Salting-Out
Denaturation
Hydrolysis of Peptides and Proteins
Maillard Browning
Enzymes
Functional Roles of Proteins in Foods
Conjugated Proteins
Protein Quality
Nutrition—See More in Specific Food Commodity Chapters
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
9: Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, and Nuts
Introduction
Characteristics of Meat
Physical Composition of Meat
Chemical Composition of Meat
Water
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Vitamins and Minerals
Muscle Contraction in Live Animals
Structure of the Myofilaments of Muscle
Muscle Contraction
Energy for Contraction
Postmortem Changes in the Muscle
Ultimate pH
Aging or Conditioning of Meat
Meat Pigments and Color Changes
Meat-Handling Process
USDA Inspections
Kosher Inspection
“What Is Kosher Food?
Halal Certification
Grading of Meat
Hormones and Antibiotics
Animal Welfare Approval
Cuts of Meat
Primal or Wholesale Cuts
Subprimal Cuts
Retail Cuts
Cooking Meat
Effects of Cooking on Muscle Proteins
Effects of Cooking on Collagen
Effect of Cooking on Fat
Methods of Cooking
Other Factors Significant in Cooking
Alterations to Meat
Processed Meat
Curing and Smoking of Meat
Restructured Meat
Tenderizing, Artificial Tenderizing
Poultry
Fish
Dry Beans, Peas (Legumes), and Nuts as Meat Alternatives
Legumes
Quorn as a Meat Alternative
Nuts
Nutritive Value
Safety of Meat, Poultry, and Fish
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
10: Eggs and Egg Products
Introduction
Physical Structure and Composition of Eggs
The Whole Egg
The Yolk
The White
The Shell
Color
Changes Due to Aging
Abnormalities of an Egg Structure and Composition
Egg Function
Inspections and Grading for egg Quality
Candling
Letter Grades
Air Cell
Egg Size
Processing/Preservation of Eggs
Mineral Oil
Pasteurization
Freezing
Dehydration
Storing Eggs
Denaturation and Coagulation—Definitions and Controls
Effect of Added Ingredients on Denaturation and Coagulation
Cooking/Baking Changes
Egg White Foams and Meringues
Egg Products and Egg Substitutes
Nutritive Value of Eggs
Safety of Eggs
Egg White Resistance to Bacterial Growth
USDA Sampling
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
11: Milk and Milk Products
Introduction
Definition of Milk
Composition of Milk
Water
Carbohydrate
Fat
Protein
Vitamins and Minerals
Classification of Milk
Grading of Milk
Flavor of Milk
Milk Processing
Pasteurization
Homogenization
Fortification
Bleaching
Types of Milk
Fluid Milk
Evaporated and Concentrated Milks
Dried Milk
Cultured Milk/Fermentation
Buttermilk
Cultured Buttermilk
Sour Cream
Yogurt
Acidophilus Milk
Kefir
Other Milk Products
Butter
Cream
Ice Cream
Whey
Cooking Applications
Cheese
Milk Substitutes and Imitation Milk Products
Nutritive Value of Milk and Milk Products
Proteins (See Previous Notes Above)
Fats and Cholesterol
Carbohydrates
Vitamins and Minerals
Lactose Intolerance
Safety/Quality of Milk
Marketing Milk
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
Part IV: Fats in Food
12: Fat and Oil Products
Introduction
Structure and Composition of Fats
Glycerides
Minor Components of Fats and Oils
Structure of Fatty Acids
Isomerism
Nomenclature of Fatty Acids
Geneva or Systematic Nomenclature
Trans-9-Octadecenoic Acid
The Omega Naming System
Properties of Fats and Oils
Crystal Formation
Polymorphism
Melting Points
Plastic Fats
Composition of Dietary Fats and Oils
Animal Fats
Tropical Oils
CULINARY ALERT! In part due to the fact that animal fats contain cholesterol, saturated fat and a pronounced flavor, the use of animal fat such as lard and tallow in foods has declined in favor of vegetable oils.
Production and Processing Methods
Deodorized Oils
Rendered Fat
Modification of Fats
Hydrogenation
Interesterification
Acetylation
Winterization
Deterioration of Fats
Hydrolytic Rancidity
Oxidative Rancidity or Autoxidation
Prevention of Autoxidation
Shortening and Shortening Power of Various Fats and Oils
Tenderization Versus Flakiness Provided by Fats and Oils
Emulsification (see Chap. 13)
Frying
Smoke Point
Changes During Frying
Low-Fat and No-Fat Foods
Fat Replacements
Carbohydrate-Derived Fat Replacements
Examples of Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers
Fat-Derived Fat Replacements
Examples of Fat-Based Fat Replacers
Protein-Derived Fat Replacements
Examples of Protein-Based Fat Replacers
Nutritive Value of Fats and Oils
Navigating FODMAPs
Safety of Fats and Oils
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
13: Food Emulsions and Foams
Introduction
Emulsions
Definition
Surface Tension
Surface-Active Molecules
Emulsion Formation
Emulsifiers
Natural Emulsifiers
Synthetic Emulsifiers or Surfactants
Examples of Emulsions
Factors Affecting Emulsion Stability
Foams
Comparison Between Foams and Emulsions
Foam Formation
Foam Stability
Foaming Agents
The Effect of Added Ingredients on Foam Stability
Anti-Foaming Agents and Foam Suppressants
Other Colloidal Systems
Conclusion
Bibliography
Glossary
Part V: Sugars, Sweeteners and Confections
14: Sugars, Sweeteners, and Confections
Introduction
Sources of Sugar
Roles of Sugar in Food Systems
Sweetness
Tenderness
Browning
Types of Sugars and Sugar Syrups
Added Sugars
Syrups (Liquids)
Properties of Sucrose
Solubility
Types of Solutions
Elevation of Boiling Point
Formation of Invert Sugar
Hygroscopicity
Fermentable
Sugar Substitutes
High-Intensity Sweeteners
Sugar Alcohols (Polyols)
Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load
Glycemic Index vs. Glycemic Load
Novel Sweeteners
Confections
Major Candy Types—Crystalline and Amorphous Candies
Factors Influencing Degree of Crystallization and Candy Type
Ripening
Nutritive Value of Sugars and Sweeteners
Safety
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
Part VI: Baked Products
15: Baked Products: Batters and Dough
Introduction
Classes of Batters and Dough
Gluten
Function of Various Ingredients in Batters and Dough
Flour Function
Liquids Function
Leavening Agents Function
Eggs Function
Fat Function
Salt Function
Sugar Function
The Leavening Process of Specific Baked Products
Air as a Leavening Agent
Steam as a Leavening Agent
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) as a Leavening Agent
Chemical Production of CO2
Baking Soda
Baking Powder
Biological Production of CO2
Ingredients in Specific Baked Products
Yeast Bread Ingredients
Quick Bread Ingredients
Pastry Ingredients
Cake Ingredients
Mixing Methods for Various Batters and Dough
Biscuits
Cakes
Muffins
Pastries
Summary of Mixing Pour Batters, Drop Batter
Kneading Dough, Yeast Dough
Baking Batters and Dough
Altitude-Adjusted Baking
Storage of Baked Products
Nutritive Value of Baked Products
Reduced-Fat and No-Fat Baked Products
Safety Issues in Batters and Dough
Microbial Hazards
Nonmicrobial Hazards
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
Part VII: Aspects of Food Handling
16: Food Preservation
Introduction
Food Preservation
Heat Preservation
Methods of Heat Transfer
Heat Treatment Methods: Mild or Severe
Mild Heat Treatment
Severe Heat Treatment
Canning
Bottling (Hot Filling)
The Effect of Heat on Microorganisms
Selecting Heat Treatments
Refrigeration Preservation
Problems Associated with Refrigeration
Freezing Preservation
Freezing Methods
Problems Associated with Freezing
Chemical Changes to Frozen Foods
Moisture Control in Freezing
Dehydration
Concentration to Preserve Food
Methods of Concentration
Changes During Concentration
Added Preservatives
Radiation to Preserve Food
Microwave Heating
Irradiation
Ohmic Heating
Induction Heating
High-Pressure Processing
Other Preservation Techniques
Nutritive Value of Preserved Foods
Safety of Preserved Foods
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Glossary
17: Food Additives
Introduction
Definition of Food Additives
Food Additives
Function of Food Additives
Legislation and Testing for Food Additives
Delaney Clause
Nutrition Labeling Education Act (NLEA)
Major Additives Used in Processing
Types of Food Ingredients
Major Additives Used in Processing: Some Highlights—Colors, Flavors
Colorants
Flavoring Agents
Sweeteners
Nutrient Supplements in Food
Pre- and Probiotics
Dietary Supplements
Functional Foods (See More in Appendices)
Phytochemicals (See More in Appendices)
Nutraceuticals (More in Appendices)
Formulating a New Product with Vitamin or Mineral Addition
Safety
Conclusion
Appendix
References
Bibliograhy
Glossary
18: Food Packaging
Introduction
Types of Packaging Containers
Packaging Functions
Packaging Materials
Metal
Glass
Paper
Plastic
Other Packaging Materials
Controlling Packaging Atmosphere
What Is ROP?
Cook-Chill
Modified Atmosphere Packaging
Controlled Atmosphere Storage and Packaging
Sous Vide
Vacuum Packaging
Active Packaging Technologies
Aseptic Packaging
Flexible Packaging
Freezer Packaging Protection
Freezer Burn
Cavity Ice
Tamper-Evident Banding and Sleeve Labeling
Manufacturing Concerns in Packaging
Selection of Packaging Materials
Migration from Packaging Materials
Packaging Lines at Processing Plants and Foodservice Operations
Packaging with Radio Frequency Identification Tags (RFID)
Packaging as a Communication and Marketing Tool
Safety Considerations and Packaging
Government Concerns in Packaging
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Associations and Organizations
Glossary
19: Food Safety
Introduction
Foodborne Illness
Biological (Microbiological) Hazards to the Food Supply
Bacteria: The Major Biological Foodborne Illness
Viruses
Fungi
Mold
Parasites
Contamination, Spoilage
Chemical Hazards to the Food Supply
Physical Hazards to the Food Supply
Food Protection Systems
FDA (see Chap. 20)
The FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) (also see Chap. 20)
Food Facility Registration
Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs)
Contact CFSAN
USDA Food Protection (see Chap. 20)
The HACCP System of Food Protection: USDA
Surveillance for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks
Other Causes of Spoilage, Contamination
Responsibility for Food Safety
Sanitizing in the Workplace
Labeling as a Means of Assuring Food Safety
Product Dating
Refrigerator & Freezer Storage Chart
Allergen-Free Labeling
Future Legislative Rule Enactment
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Bibliography
Model Food Code
Associations and Organizations
Addendum
Part VIII: Government Regulation of the Food Supply and Labeling
20: Government Regulation of the Food Supply and Labeling
Introduction
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (see Chap. 19)
FDA Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act—1938
Amendments to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
GRAS Substances
Standards for Interstate Transport of Food
Adulterated and Misbranded Food
Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA): See Chap. 19
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
State and Local Health Departments
Additional Agencies Regulating the Food Supply
Education and Training
General Food Labeling
Labels: Radio Frequency Identification Tags
Nutrition Labeling
FDA Modernizes Nutrition Facts Label for Packaged Foods
Unit Changes
Labeling for Foodservice
Conclusion
Glossary
Chapter 20 Appendix
Highlights of the Changes to the Label
Features a Refreshed Design
Reflects Updated Information About Nutrition Science
Updates Serving Sizes and Labeling Requirements for Certain Package Sizes
Understanding Food Marketing Terms
“Natural”
“Processed” and “Unprocessed”
“Local”
“Whole”
“Organic”
Health Claims on Food Labels
Terms You Can Trust
References
Bibliography
Appendices
Introduction
Appendix A
Biotechnology, GMO
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
Appendix B
Functional Foods
Use of Functional Foods
Appendix C
Nutraceuticals
Appendix D
Phytochemicals
Appendix E
Medical Foods
Appendix F
Processed Food
“Processed Foods” Defined
The Continuum of Processed Foods (International Food Information Council Foundation)
Five Types of Food and Examples (Modification of IFIC Foundation)
Appendix G
Brief History of Food Guides—Choosemyplate.gov
Glossary
Index