Essential Oils: Extraction, Characterization and Applications

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Essential Oils: Extraction, Characterization and Applications
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Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Essential oils in plants: Plant physiology, the chemical composition of the oil, and natural variation of the ...
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Phytochemistry of different essential oils
1.2.1. Major phytochemicals in the plant-based essential oils
1.2.1.1. Terpenes
1.2.1.2. Alpha-pinene
1.2.1.3. Steroids
1.2.1.4. Tannins
1.2.1.5. Flavonoids
1.2.1.6. Glycosides
1.2.1.7. Alkaloids
1.2.1.8. Phenols
1.2.1.9. Coumarin
1.2.1.10. Saponins
1.3. Natural variation of the oils (chemotaxonomy and environmental effects, etc.)
1.4. Extraction methods of essential oils
1.4.1. Conventional extraction methods
1.4.1.1. Hydrodistillation
1.4.1.2. Steam distillation
1.4.1.3. Hydrodiffusion
1.4.1.4. Solvent extraction
1.4.2. Innovative extraction methods
1.4.2.1. Supercritical fluid extraction
1.4.2.2. Subcritical extraction liquid
1.4.2.3. Solvent-free microwave extraction
1.5. Characterization of all essential oil
1.6. Applications of all essential oils
1.6.1. Antioxidant
1.6.2. Antiinflammatory
1.6.3. Antihyperpigmentation
1.6.4. Antidiabetic
1.6.5. Antimicrobial
1.6.6. Antiviral
1.6.7. Anticancer
1.6.8. Cardioprotective
1.6.9. Neuroprotective
1.6.10. Hepatoprotective
1.7. Safety concerns
1.8. Conclusion
References
Further reading
Chapter 2: Extraction and analysis of essential oils: Extraction methods used at laboratory and industrial level and chem ...
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Extraction, isolation, and purification methods of essential oils at laboratory level
2.2.1. Innovatory extraction methods
2.2.1.1. Supercritical fluid extraction (ScFE)
2.2.1.2. Subcritical liquid extraction (SLE)
2.2.1.3. Solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME)
2.2.1.4. Pulsed electric field extraction (PEFE)
2.2.2. Isolation and purification techniques of essential oils at laboratory level
2.2.2.1. High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC)
2.2.2.2. Optimum performance laminar chromatography (OPLC)
2.3. Extraction, isolation, and purification methods used for essential oils at the industrial level
2.3.1. Extraction methods
2.3.1.1. Water distillation (hydrodistillation)
2.3.1.2. Steam distillation
2.3.1.3. Solvent extraction
2.3.2. Isolation and purification techniques of essential oils used at the industrial level
2.3.2.1. Thin layer chromatography (TLC)
2.3.2.2. Column chromatography (CC)
2.3.2.3. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
2.4. Chemical transformation
2.4.1. Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC)
2.4.2. Simulated moving bed chromatography (SMBC)
2.4.3. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE)
2.4.4. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE)
2.4.5. Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE)
2.5. Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Importance of essential oils and current trends in use of essential oils (aroma therapy, agrofood, and medicin ...
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Aromatherapy
3.2.1. Eucalyptus
3.2.2. Lavender
3.2.3. Lemon
3.2.4. Rosemary
3.2.5. Tea tree
3.3. Agrofood uses
3.3.1. EOs as green pesticides
3.3.2. Utilization of EOs as food preservatives
3.3.3. Presence of EOs in packaging materials
3.4. Medicinal uses
3.4.1. Antioxidant
3.4.2. Antibacterial
3.4.3. Antifungal
3.4.4. Anticancer
3.4.5. Antiinflammatory
3.4.6. Antiviral
3.4.7. Antidiabetic
3.4.8. Antiprotozoal
3.4.9. Anxiolytic potential
3.4.10. Anticholinesterase potential
3.5. Economic importance
3.6. Current trends
3.6.1. Food preservation
3.6.2. Medicinal uses
3.6.2.1. Antibacterial properties
3.6.2.2. Antifungal properties
3.7. Future perspective
3.8. Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Lavender essential oil: Nutritional, compositional, and therapeutic insights
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Current status
4.3. Biochemical profile
4.4. Extraction techniques
4.5. Structural and nutritional characterization
4.6. Chemistry and their properties
4.6.1. Linalool
4.6.2. Linalyl acetate
4.6.3. Eucalyptol
4.6.4. Carvacrol
4.6.5. α-Terpineol
4.7. Therapeutic potential
4.7.1. Aromatherapy
4.7.2. Antidepressant
4.7.3. Antimicrobial
4.7.4. Antioxidant
4.7.5. Cardioprotective
4.7.6. Antiinflammatory
4.7.7. Digestive system
4.7.8. Anticancer
4.7.9. Antihair fall
4.8. Applications
4.8.1. Application in agrofood
4.8.2. Nonfood applications
4.9. Safety, toxicity, and regulation
4.9.1. Toxicity
4.9.2. Legislations
4.9.3. Trade, storage stability, and transportation
4.10. Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Peppermint essential oil
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Production and composition
5.3. Extraction techniques
5.3.1. Steam distillation
5.3.2. Hydrodistillation
5.3.3. Solvent extraction
5.3.4. Microwave assisted extraction
5.3.5. Supercritical fluid extraction
5.3.6. Other methods
5.4. Characterization of peppermint essential oil components
5.5. Properties of peppermint essential oils
5.5.1. Antimicrobial properties
5.6. Applications of peppermint essential oil
5.6.1. Relieves pain
5.6.2. Cures irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
5.7. Toxicity associated with usage of peppermint essential oil
5.8. Conclusion and future perspective
References
Chapter 6: Sandalwood essential oil
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Comparative account on sandalwood essential oil
6.2.1. Santalum album (Indian sandalwood)
6.2.2. Santalum spicatum (Western Australian sandalwood)
6.2.3. Santalum paniculatum (Hawaiian sandalwood)
6.2.4. Santalum yasi
6.2.5. Santalum austrocaledonicum
6.2.6. Santalum lanceolatum
6.2.7. Santalum macgregorii
6.3. Methods of extraction of sandalwood essential oil
6.4. Therapeutic benefits of sandalwood essential oil
6.5. Production and composition of sandalwood essential oil
6.6. Safety, toxicity, and regulation of sandalwood essential oil
6.7. Trade and storage stability of sandalwood essential oil
6.8. Current understanding and prospects
6.9. Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Jasmine essential oil: Production, extraction, characterization, and applications
7.1. Introduction
7.1.1. The jasmine plants
7.1.2. Major species
7.2. Production and composition
7.2.1. Production and market trends
7.2.2. Planting and propagation
7.2.3. Growth and development
7.2.4. Husbandry
7.2.5. Harvesting and handling
7.2.6. Composition and physicochemical properties
7.3. Extraction techniques
7.3.1. Steam distillation
7.3.2. The steam distillation process
7.3.3. Super critical fluid extraction (SFE)
7.3.4. Supercritical fluid extraction process
7.3.5. Analysis of jasmine essential oils
7.4. Characterization of jasmine essential oils using NMR spectroscopy
7.5. Chemistry and properties
7.6. Applications of jasmine essential oil: Pharmacological, agrofood, and nonfood applications
7.6.1. Antimicrobial potential
7.6.2. Antioxidant and anticancer potential
7.6.3. Acaricidal potential
7.6.4. Xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity
7.6.5. Food preservation potential
7.7. Safety, toxicity, and regulations
7.8. Trade, storage stability, and transport
7.9. Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Citrus essential oil (grapefruit, orange, lemon)
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Extraction and characterization of citrus essential oils (CEOs)
8.2.1. Cold pressing (CP) method
8.2.2. Solvent extraction (SE) method
8.2.3. Steam distillation (SD) method
8.2.4. Hydrodistillation (HD) method
8.2.5. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE)
8.2.6. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method
8.2.7. Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) method
8.2.8. Ionic liquid-based microwave-assisted extraction (MAE-IL) method
8.2.9. Microwave-assisted hydrodiffusion and gravity method (MHG)
8.2.10. Microwave accelerated distillation (MAD) method
8.2.11. Supercritical fluid extraction
8.2.12. Enzyme assisted extraction (EAE)
8.3. Composition of citrus essential oils (CEOs)
8.4. Applications of citrus essential oils
8.4.1. Antioxidant activity
8.4.2. Antiinflammatory activity
8.4.3. Antitumor assay
8.4.4. Antiprotozoal activity
8.4.5. Antimicrobial and antifungal activity
8.4.6. Insecticidal activity
8.5. Future concerns and perspectives
8.6. Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Eucalyptus essential oils
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Eucalyptus essential oil history
9.3. Some important types of eucalyptus essential oil
9.3.1. Eucalyptus globulus (blue gum)
9.3.2. Eucalyptus polybractea (blue mallee)
9.3.3. Eucalyptus radiata (Eucalyptus radiata)
9.3.4. Eucalyptus citridora (lemon eucalyptus)
9.4. Production and composition
9.4.1. Production
9.4.2. Composition
9.4.2.1. E. oleosa essential oils
9.4.2.2. E. oleosa stems essential oil
9.4.2.3. E. oleosa leaves essential oil
9.4.2.4. Essential oil of E. oleosa fruits
9.5. Techniques
9.5.1. Extraction strategies
9.5.2. Hydro-distillation
9.5.3. Steam distillation
9.5.4. Vacuum distillation
9.5.5. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)
9.5.6. Subcritical-water extraction (SWE)
9.5.7. Microwave-assisted essential oil extraction (MAEOE)
9.6. Characterization and identification of essential oil components by techniques like NMR-13C
9.7. Eucalyptus essential oil chemistry and properties
9.7.1. Chemical makeup
9.8. Essential oil yield
9.9. Functional applications of Eucalyptus essential oil
9.9.1. Aromatherapy
9.9.2. Antimicrobial properties
9.9.3. Antifungal activity
9.9.4. Insecticidal activity
9.9.5. Antioxidant activity
9.10. Eucalyptus essential oils application in pharmacological, agro food, and nonfood products
9.10.1. Eucalyptus oils use in pharmaceuticals
9.10.2. Anticancer
9.10.3. Antidiabetic
9.10.4. Antibacterial
9.11. Eucalyptus essential oils use in agro-industry
9.11.1. Eucalyptus essential oils use as insect repellent
9.11.2. Development of herbicides
9.11.3. Eucalyptus essential oils application in nonfood products
9.12. Eucalyptus essential oils as additives in active food packaging
9.12.1. Impact of eucalyptus oil addition on the in vitro antioxidant properties
9.13. Eucalyptus oils use in the fragrance industry
9.13.1. Eucalyptus oils use in air fresheners
9.13.2. Eucalyptus essential oils benefits for skin
9.13.3. Eucalyptus essential oil used in a humidifier
9.14. Safety, toxicity and regulation
9.14.1. Safety
9.14.1.1. Safety assessment of cosmetics ingredients
9.14.1.2. Safety assessment of food ingredients
9.14.1.3. Safety assessment of drug ingredients
9.14.1.4. Other
9.14.2. Toxicity and regulation
9.14.2.1. Oral ingestion of Eucalyptus globulus leaf oil
9.14.2.2. Inhalation of essential leaf oil
9.15. Trade, storage stability and transport of eucalyptus essential oil
9.15.1. World-wide trade and markets for eucalyptus oil
9.15.2. Storage stability of eucalyptus essential oil
9.15.3. Transport of eucalyptus essential oil
9.16. Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Essential oils from Apiaceae family (parsley, lovage, and dill)
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Factors influencing essential oil production of parsley, dill, and lovage
10.2.1. Factors influencing essential oil production of parsley
10.2.2. Factors influencing essential oil production of dill
10.2.3. Factors influencing essential oil production of lovage
10.3. Extraction techniques of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.3.1. Extraction techniques for parsley essential oil
10.3.2. Extraction techniques for dill essential oil
10.3.3. Extraction techniques for lovage essential oil
10.4. Chemical profile of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.4.1. Chemical profile of parsley essential oil
10.4.2. Chemical profile of dill essential oil
10.4.3. Chemical profile of lovage essential oil
10.5. Bioactivity of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.5.1. Antioxidant activity of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.5.2. Antimicrobial activity of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.6. Applications of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.6.1. Pharmacological applications of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.6.1.1. Pharmacological applications of parsley essential oil
10.6.1.2. Pharmacological applications of dill essential oil
10.6.1.3. Pharmacological applications of lovage essential oil
10.6.2. Food applications of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.6.3. Non-food applications of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.7. Safety and toxicity of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.8. Trade and regulation of parsley, dill, and lovage essential oil
10.9. Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Essential oils from Lamiaceae family (rosemary, thyme, mint, basil)
11.1. Chemical composition of essential oils
11.2. Lamiaceae family
11.2.1. Essential oil of Lamiaceae family
11.3. Composition of basil, mint, rosemary, and thyme oil
11.4. Extraction techniques
11.5. Safety, toxicity, and regulation of basil, mint, rosemary, and thyme oil
11.6. Storage stability of basil, mint, thyme, and rosemary oil
11.7. Applications of essential oils of basil, mint, rosemary, and thyme
11.7.1. Pharmacological
11.7.2. Agro-food
11.7.3. Non-food applications
11.8. Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Clove oil
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Botanical description
12.3. Impurities and their removal from clove oil
12.3.1. Phospholipids
12.3.2. Free fatty acids
12.4. Oil extraction by enzymes
12.4.1. Super critical fluid extraction (SCF)
12.5. Lipid oxidation in clove oil
12.6. Fortification of foods with clove oil
12.7. Future applications of clove oil
12.7.1. Bakery and table margarine
12.7.2. Dairy whitener tea/coffee whitener
12.7.3. Whipped cream dairy and nondairy versions
12.7.4. Use of stearin and olein fractions of clove oil in ice cream and frozen desserts
12.7.5. Mayonnaise
12.8. Summary of some clinical trials of polyunsaturated fatty acids
References
Chapter 13: Ginger essential oil: Chemical composition, extraction, characterization, pharmacological activities, and app ...
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Productions of GEO
13.3. Chemical composition and yield of GEO
13.3.1. Effect of geographical location on chemical components and yield of GEO
13.3.2. Effect of maturity and variety on chemical components and yield of GEO
13.3.3. Effect of drying methods on chemical components and yield of GEO
13.3.4. Effect of extraction method on chemical components and yield of GEO
13.4. Extraction methods of GEO
13.4.1. Conventional methods of extraction
13.4.1.1. Hydro-distillation
13.4.1.2. Steam distillation
13.4.1.3. Solvent extraction/liquid-liquid extraction
13.4.1.4. Soxhlet extraction
13.4.2. Advanced methods of extraction of GEO
13.4.2.1. Supercritical CO2 extraction
13.4.2.2. Subcritical water extraction
13.4.2.3. Solvent-free microwave extraction
13.4.2.4. Microwave-assisted hydro-distillation
13.4.2.5. Microwave hydro-diffusion and gravity
13.5. Analytical method for characterization of GEO
13.5.1. GC-MS analysis of GEO
13.5.2. 13C NMR analysis of GEO
13.6. Pharmacological activities of GEO
13.6.1. Antioxidant activity
13.6.2. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects
13.6.3. Antimicrobial activity
13.6.4. Anticancer activity
13.6.5. Neuroprotection
13.6.6. Anti-obesity activity
13.6.7. Antidiabetic activity
13.6.8. Bronchodilatory effects
13.6.9. Anti-ulcer effects
13.6.10. Immunomodulatory effects
13.6.11. Other pharmacological activities
13.7. Applications of GEO
13.8. Safety, toxicity, and regulation
13.9. Trade, storage stability and transport
13.10. Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Cinnamon essential oil
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Production and composition of cinnamon EO
14.2.1. Extraction techniques
14.3. Characterization of cinnamon essential oil
14.4. Health benefits of cinnamon essential oil
14.4.1. Antiinflammatory
14.4.2. Antitumor and anticancer
14.4.3. Antidiabetic
14.4.4. Antioxidant activity
14.5. Application of cinnamon essential oil in food and nonfood industries
14.6. Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Nutmeg essential oil
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Botanical aspects
15.3. Essential oil production
15.4. Composition of nutmeg
15.5. Extraction of nutmeg essential oil
15.6. Uses and applications
15.6.1. Applications of nutmeg and nutmeg oil in food industry
15.7. Safety, toxicity, and regulation of nutmeg essential oil
15.8. Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Rosewood essential oil
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Production of rosewood essential oil
16.3. Composition of rosewood oil
16.4. Extraction of rosewood oil
16.4.1. Conventional extraction methods
16.4.1.1. Steam distillation
16.4.1.2. Hydro-distillation
16.4.1.3. Hydro-diffusion
16.4.1.4. Solvent extraction
16.4.2. Innovative extraction technology
16.4.2.1. Supercritical fluid extraction
16.4.2.2. Microwave-assisted extraction
16.4.2.3. Ultrasonic assisted extraction
16.5. Chemical characterization
16.6. Characteristics of rosewood
16.7. Applications of rosewood essential oil
16.7.1. Pharmacological applications
16.7.2. Food applications
16.8. Safety and toxicity of rosewood essential oils
16.9. Storage stability
16.10. Trade of rosewood oil
16.11. Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Juniper essential oil: An overview of bioactive compounds and functional aspects
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Production and composition
17.3. Extraction techniques (distillation)
17.4. Applications
17.5. Health claims
17.5.1. Antioxidant activity
17.5.2. Hepatoprotective activity
17.5.3. Antiinflammatory activity
17.5.4. Antidiabetic activity
17.5.5. Antihyperlipidemic activity
17.5.6. Analgesic activity
17.5.7. Antibacterial activity
17.5.8. Antimicrobial activity
17.5.9. Antifungal activity
17.5.10. Antimalarial activity
17.5.11. Anticataleptic activity
17.5.12. Neuroprotective activity
17.6. Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Patchouli essential oil
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Production and composition
18.2.1. Adulteration and contamination
18.2.2. Odor of patchouli essential oil
18.3. Extraction techniques
18.3.1. Steam distillation
18.3.2. Hydrodistillation
18.3.3. Microwave hydrodistillation
18.3.4. Microwave air-hydrodistillation
18.3.5. Solvent-free microwave extraction
18.3.6. Ultrasonic assisted solvent extraction
18.4. Characterization
18.4.1. Two-dimensional gas chromatography (2D-GC)
18.4.2. Chiral GC
18.4.3. Chromatographic fingerprint of patchouli oil
18.5. Chemistry and properties
18.6. Applications
18.6.1. Aromatherapy
18.6.2. Pharmacological activities
18.6.2.1. Gastrointestinal protective effect
18.6.2.2. Effect on intestinal microecology
18.6.2.3. Antidiarrheal effect
18.6.2.4. Antiemetic effect
18.6.2.5. Antidiabetic effect
18.6.2.6. Antihypertensive effect
18.6.2.7. Effect on ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury
18.6.2.8. Antioxidant effect
18.6.2.9. Antiinflammatory effect
18.6.2.10. Antitumor effect
18.6.2.11. Analgesic effect
18.6.2.12. Immunoregulatory effect
18.6.2.13. Antimicrobial effect
18.6.2.14. Insecticidal effect
18.7. Safety, toxicity, and regulation
18.8. Trade, storage stability, and transport
18.9. Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Clary sage essential oil
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Clary sage oil production and chemical composition
19.3. Extraction techniques (distillation)
19.3.1. Distillation
19.3.1.1. Steam distillation
19.3.1.2. Hydrodistillation
19.3.1.3. Hydrodiffusion
19.3.2. Solvent extraction
19.3.2.1. Supercritical carbon dioxide
19.3.2.2. Subcritical water
19.3.3. Solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME)
19.3.4. Combination methods
19.4. Characterization of essential oil components
19.5. Chemistry and properties
19.6. Applications
19.6.1. Pharmacological
19.6.1.1. Antianxiolytic
19.6.1.2. Significance in women health
19.6.1.3. Antibacterial
19.6.1.4. Antifungal
19.6.1.5. Antiviral
19.6.1.6. Antidepressant and stress-relieving properties
19.6.1.7. Cytotoxic
19.6.1.8. Antioxidant
19.6.1.9. Antiinflammatory
19.6.1.10. Antidiabetic
19.6.2. Agro-food
19.6.3. Nonfood
19.6.3.1. Perfumery
19.6.3.2. Cosmetics
19.6.3.3. Wound dressings and smart packaging
19.7. Safety, toxicity and regulation
19.8. Trade, storage, stability, and transport
19.9. Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Tea tree essential oil
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Phytochemistry of tea tree EO
20.3. Extraction of tea tree EO
20.3.1. Steam distillation extraction
20.3.1.1. Pretreatment of raw material for steam distillation
20.3.2. Steam distillation process
20.3.3. Modifications in steam distillation process
20.3.4. Other extraction methods
20.4. Applications of tea tree essential oils
20.4.1. Pharmacological applications
20.4.1.1. Antimicrobial applications
20.4.1.2. Antiinflammatory properties
20.4.1.3. Antioxidant
20.4.1.4. Anticancer
20.4.1.5. Acaridical properties
20.4.1.6. Topical, herbal and therapeutic applications
20.4.2. Agrofood applications
20.4.3. Nonfood applications
20.5. Safety concerns
20.6. Conclusions
References
Index
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