Essential Echocardiography: A Companion to Braunwald's Heart Disease

Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Contributors
Preface
Braunwald’s Heart Disease Family of Books
Section I: Principles of Ultrasound and Instrumentation
Chapter 1: Physical Principles of Ultrasound and Generation of Images
Introduction
Generation of Images By Ultrasound
Resolution of Echocardiographic Images
Phased Array and Matrix Array Transducers
Second Harmonic Imaging
Principles of Doppler Imaging
Continuous Wave Doppler
Pulsed Wave Doppler
Color Flow Doppler
Doppler Tissue Imaging
2D Speckle Tracking Echocardiography
Suggested Readings
References
Chapter 2: M-Mode Imaging
Normal M-Mode Measurements
Normal M-Mode Examination of the Aortic Root, Aortic Cusp Separation, and Left Atrial Dimension
M-Mode Echocardiography in the Identification of Abnormal Cardiac Structure and Function
Bicuspid Aortic Valve
Subaortic Membrane
Mitral Valve Prolapse
Systolic Anterior Motion of the Mitral Valve
Valvular Vegetations
Rheumatic Mitral Valve Deformity
Left Ventricular Dyssynchrony
Constrictive Pericarditis
Cor Pulmonale
Severe Pulmonary Hypertension
Ebstein Anomaly
Increased Right Atrial Pressure
M-Mode Examination of Prosthetic Valves
Color M-Mode Echocardiography
Summary
Suggested Readings
Chapter 3: Principles of Contrast Echocardiography
Introduction
Microbubble Contrast Agents
Microvascular Behavior of Microbubbles
Detection of Microbubble Ultrasound Signal
Contrast-Specific Imaging Methods
Safety of Microbubble Contrast Agents
Suggested Readings
References
Chapter 4: Principles of Transesophageal Echocardiography
Introduction
Indications
Complications
Patient Management
The Comprehensive Tee Exam
Mid- and Upper-Esophageal Imaging
Transgastric Imaging
Thoracic Aorta
Interventional Echocardiography
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 5: Principles of Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
Introduction
Fully Sampled Matrix Array Transducers
Physics of Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
Multibeat ECG-Gated Acquisition
Real-Time Zoom Acquisition
Parallel Receive Beamforming
Display of Three-Dimensional Echocardiographic Images
Volume Rendering
Surface Rendering
Wireframe Rendering
Clinical Applications of Three-Dimensional Echocardiography
Quantification of Cardiac Chambers
Clinical Applications of Three-Dimensional Echocardiography
Left Ventricular Structure and Function
Right Ventricular Structure and Function
Left and Right Atria
Valvular Heart Disease
Mitral Valve
Aortic Valve
Tricuspid Valve
Prosthetic Valves
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 6: Principles and Practical Aspects of Strain Echocardiography
Introduction
Principles of Strain Imaging
Twist and Torsion
Regional and Global Function
Left Ventricle
Right Ventricle
Left Atrium
Coronary Artery Disease and Ischemic Cardiomyopathy
Nonischemic Cardiomyopathy
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Chemotherapy-Related Cardiotoxicity
Other Cardiomyopathies
Dilated Cardiomyopathy and Dyssynchrony Analysis
Valvular Heart Disease
Infiltrative Disease
Amyloidosis
Suggested Readings
References
Chapter 7: Understanding Imaging Artifacts
Introduction
B-Mode Artifacts
Shadowing (Attenuation) and Dropout Artifacts
Reverberation Artifacts
Multiple Reflection Artifacts
Side Lobe Artifacts
Refraction Artifacts
Beam-Width Artifacts/Partial Volume Artifacts
(Color) Doppler Mirror Image Artifacts
Four-Dimensional Echocardiography Stitch Artifacts
Suggested Readings
References
Section II: The Echocardiographic Examination
Chapter 8: Principles of Transthoracic Imaging Acquisition: The Standard Adult Transthoracic Echocardiographic Examination
Introduction
Transducer Positions
Cardiac Imaging Plane
Region or Structure of Interest
Image Orientation Standards
Two-Dimensional Echocardiography: Tomographic Scan Plane Orientation and Display Protocol
Complementary Protocols: Doppler, Three-Dimensional Echocardiography, and Myocardial Segmentation
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 9: The Transthoracic Examination, View by View
Introduction
Left Parasternal Views
Apical Views
Subcostal Views
Suprasternal Notch Views
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 10: Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Image Acquisition
Introduction
The Three-Dimensional Transthoracic Echocardiography Data Acquisition Protocol
Two-Dimensional Image Optimization
Acquisition Modes
Cropping and Rendering
Image Display and Analysis
Challenges and Optimization in Three-Dimensional Data Acquisition
Electrocardiography Gating and Breath Hold
Three-Dimensional Gain Optimization
Live Three-Dimensional Optimization
Suggested Reading
Chapter 11: Optimization of the Patient and Equipment
Introduction
Optimizing Patient and Transducer Positions
Optimizing Two-Dimensional Imaging: Machine Settings
Use of Contrast
Optimizing the Spectral Doppler Examination
Optimizing the Color Flow Doppler Examination
Summary
Suggested Reading
Chapter 12: Utilizing Contrast Echocardiography in Practice
Introduction
Left Ventricular Opacification
Endocardial Enhancement
Stress Echocardiography
Left Ventricular Opacification for Masses and Miscellaneous Left Ventricular Abnormalities
Contrast Echocardiography For Doppler Spectral Enhancement
Safety of Microbubble Contrast Agents
General Recommendations for the Use of Contrast
Myocardial Contrast Echocardiography
General Considerations
Assessment of Myocardial Blood Volume
Quantification of Myocardial Blood Flow
Myocardial Viability
Summary
Suggested Readings
References
Chapter 13: Echo On-Call: Echocardiographic Emergencies
Introduction
Cardiovascular Emergencies
Acute Mitral Regurgitation (Flail Leaflet)
Ventricular Septal Defect
Pseudoaneurysm
Free Wall Rupture
Nonmechanical Causes of Cardiogenic Shock
Tamponade
Aortic Dissection
Pulmonary Embolus
Codes and Shock: Where Does Stat Echocardiography Fit in?
Trauma
Blunt Trauma
Penetrating Trauma
Suggested Reading
References
Section III: Assessment of Cardiac Structure and Function
Chapter 14: Assessment of Left Ventricular Systolic Function
Introduction
Left Ventricular Systole: Cardiac Cycle and Hemodynamics
Measurements of the Left Ventricle
Left Ventricular Structure: Size and Mass
Assessment of Cardiac Function
Global Measures of Left Ventricular Systolic Function
Myocardial Strain Imaging
Regional Measures of Left Ventricular Systolic Function
Suggested Reading
Chapter 15: Left Ventricular Diastolic Function
Introduction
What Is Diastolic Function and Dysfunction?
Transmitral Doppler: E Wave Peak Velocity, A Wave Peak Velocity, and E/A Ratio
Tissue Doppler Imaging e′
E/e′ Ratio
Left Atrial Size
Color M-Mode Propagation Velocity
Pulmonary Venous Flow
Tricuspid Regurgitation Velocity
Grading Diastolic Function
Estimation of Left Ventricle Filling Pressures in Specific Patient Populations
Atrial Fibrillation
AV Block and Pacing
Valvular Disease
Diastolic Stress Testing in Patients With Normal Diastolic Function at Rest: Is There a Role?
Conclusion
Suggested Readings
References
Chapter 16: Assessment of Right Ventricular Structure and Function
Introduction
Clinical Assessment of Right Ventricular Anatomy and Function
Summary
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 17: Assessment of the Atria
Introduction
Left Atrium
Structure
Function
Right Atrium
The Interatrial Septum and Congenital Abnormalities of the Atria
Atrial Masses
Suggested Reading
References
Section IV: Echocardiography for Diseases of the Myocardium
Chapter 18: Acute Myocardial Infarction
Introduction
Establishing the Diagnosis, Extent, and Location of Myocardial Infarction
Patterns of Myocardial Infarction By Coronary Artery Territory
Anterior Myocardial Infarcts (Left Anterior Descending Territory)
Inferior Myocardial Infarcts
Urgent Consequences of Acute Myocardial Infarction
Limitations to Echocardiography in the Acute Setting
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 19: Mechanical Complications of Myocardial Infarction
Introduction
Acute Mitral Regurgitation
Ventricular Septal Defect
Pseudoaneurysm
Free Wall Rupture
Tamponade
Other Causes of Cardiogenic Shock After Myocardial Infarction
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 20: Long-Term Consequences and Prognosis After Myocardial Infarction
Introduction
Left Ventricular Scar and Aneurysm
Left Ventricular Thrombus
Left Ventricular Remodeling (Ischemic Cardiomyopathy)
Functional (Secondary) Mitral Regurgitation
Rare Complications of Myocardial Infarction
Prognosis After Myocardial Infarction
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 21: Echocardiography in Heart Failure
Assessment of Cardiac Structure and Function
Assessment of Ejection Fraction
Determination of Heart Failure Etiology
Assessment of Valvular Function in Heart Failure
Mitral Regurgitation in Heart Failure
Doppler Assessment in Patients With Heart Failure
Assessment of Left Atrial and Right Ventricular Function
Assessment of Ventricular Synchrony
Deformation Imaging in Heart Failure
Assessment After Orthotopic Heart Transplant
Assessment of Ventricular Assist Devices
Echocardiography in the Context of Other Diagnostic Measures in Heart Failure
Lung Ultrasound in Heart Failure
Utility of Lung Ultrasound in Heart Failure
Limitations of Lung Ultrasound
Assessment of Pleural Effusions
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 22: Dilated Cardiomyopathies
Introduction
Common Features of Dilated Cardiomyopathies
Left Ventricular Dilation and Systolic Functional Impairment
Elevation of Left Ventricular Filling Pressures
Left Atrial Dilation
Right Heart Dilation and Functional Impairment
Functional Mitral Regurgitation
Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy
Left Ventricular Noncompaction
Tachycardia-induced Cardiomyopathy
Peripartum Cardiomyopathy
Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy
Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy
Cardiomyopathy in Chagas Disease
Chemotherapy-induced Cardiomyopathy
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 23: Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Introduction
Sarcomere Gene Mutations Cause Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Cardiac Morphology
Left Ventricular Systolic and Diastolic Function
Development of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Left Ventricular Outflow Obstruction and Mitral Valve Abnormalities
Treatment of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Using Echocardiography in the Differential Diagnosis of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Athlete’s Heart
Focal Upper Septal Hypertrophy
Infiltrative and Metabolic Cardiomyopathies
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 24: Restrictive and Infiltrative Cardiomyopathies
Introduction
Spectrum of Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Diagnosis of Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Echocardiography in Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Doppler Features
Cardiac Amyloidosis
Mitochondrial Cardiomyopathy
Endomyocardial Fibrosis and Löffler (Eosinophilic) Endocarditis
Idiopathic Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Mucopolysaccharidoses
Anderson-Fabry Disease
Glycogen Storage Diseases
Iron Overload Cardiomyopathy
Carcinoid Syndrome
Postradiation Therapy and Chemotherapy-Related Cardiac Dysfunction
Systemic Sclerosis
Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 25: Echocardiography in Assessment of Cardiac Synchrony
Introduction
Echocardiographic Methods to Assess Dyssynchrony
New Understanding of Mechanical Dyssynchrony
Myocardial Substrates of Synchrony and Discoordination
Lack of Synchrony and Risk For Ventricular Arrhythmias
Dyssynchrony Associated With Right Ventricular Pacing
Future Applications of Echocardiographic Synchrony
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 26: Echocardiography in Assessment of Ventricular Assist Devices
Introduction
Types of Ventricular Assist Devices
Short-Term Ventricular Assist Devices
Planning For a Left Ventricular Assist Device
Left Ventricular Structure and Function
Right Ventricular Structure and Function
Valves
Endocarditis
Aorta
Congenital Heart Disease
Intraoperative
Preimplantation
Postimplant
Conclusions
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 27: Stress Echocardiography and Echo in Cardiopulmonary Testing
Introduction
Ischemic Cascade
Stress Protocols
Exercise Protocols
Pharmacologic Stress Protocols
Assessment of Ischemia
Image Interpretation
Utility of Exercise Echocardiography Beyond Ischemia
Valvular Disease
Left Ventricle Function
Exercise-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension
Clinical Significance
Low-Flow, Low-Gradient Aortic Stenosis With Preserved Left Ventricle Ejection Fraction
Aortic Regurgitation
Exercise-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension
Clinical Significance
Left Ventricle Function
Exercise-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension
Clinical Significance
Secondary Mitral Regurgitation
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction
Suggested Reading
References
Section V: Valvular Heart Disease
Chapter 28: Mitral Valve Disease
Introduction
Mitral Valve Anatomy
Echocardiographic Views of the Mitral Valve
Transthoracic Echocardiography
Mitral Regurgitation
Primary Mitral Regurgitation
Secondary Mitral Regurgitation
Mitral Stenosis
Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis
Calcific Mitral Stenosis
Radiation-Associated Mitral Valve Disease
Congenital Mitral Valve Disorders
Mitral Valve Cleft
Mitral Valve Parachute
Mitral Arcade
Supravalvular Mitral Ring
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 29: Aortic Valve Disease
Introduction
Normal Aortic Valve Anatomy and Common Congenital Anomalies
Valvular Aortic Stenosis
Quantitation of Aortic Stenosis Severity
Additional Measures of Aortic Stenosis Severity
Body Surface Area Correction for Aortic Valve Area
Low Gradient Severe Aortic Stenosis
Subvalvular Or Supravalvular Aortic Stenosis
Aortic Regurgitation
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 30: Tricuspid and Pulmonic Valve Disease
Introduction
Normal Tricuspid Valve Anatomy
Two-Dimensional Echo Views For Assessing the Tricuspid Valve
Three-Dimensional Echo of the Tricuspid Valve
Abnormalities of the Tricuspid Valve
Carcinoid Valve Disease
Rheumatic Valve Disease
Tricuspid Valve Endocarditis
Flail Tricuspid Leaflet
Functional Tricuspid Regurgitation
Ebstein Anomaly of the Tricuspid Valve
Tricuspid Atresia
Echo Doppler Assessment of Tricuspid Regurgitation Severity
Role of Echocardiography in Percutaneous Tricuspid Valve Replacement
Abnormalities of the Pulmonic Valve
Three-Dimensional Echo of the Pulmonic Valve
Pulmonic Valve Endocarditis
Congenital Valvular Pulmonic Stenosis
Pulmonic Stenosis S/P Valvuloplasty
Carcinoid Involvement of the Pulmonic Valve
Echo Doppler Assessment of Pulmonic Regurgitation Severity
Summary
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 31: Prosthetic Valves
Introduction
Normal Appearance and Function
Prosthetic Valve Stenosis
Gradients
Pressure Recovery
Patient-Prosthesis Mismatch
Causes of Prosthetic Valve Stenosis
Prosthetic Valve Regurgitation
Prosthetic Valve Endocarditis
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 32: Echocardiography in Percutaneous Valvular Intervention
Introduction
Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement
Preimplantation Assessment
Intraprocedural Imaging
Wire and Cannulation Position
Balloon Aortic Valvuloplasty
Ventricular and Baseline Valvular Function
Transcatheter Valve Positioning
Postimplantation Assessment
Paravalvular Regurgitation
Transcatheter Mitral Valve Repair
Preprocedural Imaging
Intraprocedural Guidance
Transseptal Puncture
Positioning and Orienting the MitraClip
Grasping the Mitral Leaflets
Prerelease Assessment
Post-MitraClip Assessment
Other Transcatheter Mitral Valve Repair Devices and Transcatheter Mitral Valve Replacement
Tricuspid Repair Devices
Echocardiography in Transcatheter Valve-in-Surgical-Valve Procedures
Intraprocedural Imaging
Procedural Approach
Intraprocedural Imaging
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Section VI: Diseases of the Pericardium and Great Vessels
Chapter 33: Pericardial Disease
Introduction
Pericardial Fluid
Fluid Characteristics
Effusion Size
Distinguishing Features
Acute Pericarditis
Recurrent Pericarditis
Pericardial Tamponade
Pericardial Constriction
Other Pericardial Disorders and Abnormalities
Congenital Absence of Pericardium
Pericardial Cysts
Pericardial Involvement in Malignancy
Multimodality Imaging
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 34: Diseases of the Aorta
Introduction
Anatomy, Nomenclature, and Dimensions
Aortic Measurements and Dimensions
Echocardiographic Views
Transthoracic Echocardiography
Transesophageal Echocardiography
Doppler Flows in the Aorta
Aortic Aneurysms
Sinus of Valsalva Aneurysms
Associated Abnormalities
Surveillance of Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms
Aortic Disruptions (acute Aortic Syndromes)
Perioperative and Postoperative Imaging
Postoperative Imaging
Intraluminal Pathology
Atheroma
Aortic Thrombus
Aortic Tumors
Coarctation of the Aorta
Suggested Reading
References
Section VII: Diseases of the Pulmonary Artery and Veins
Chapter 35: Pulmonary Embolism
Introduction
Utility of Echocardiography in Pulmonary Embolism
Identification of Thrombus by Echocardiography
Assessment of the Right Ventricle in Pulmonary Embolism
Regional Right Ventricular Dysfunction: The “McConnell” Sign
The Influence of Elevated Pulmonary Pressures on Echocardiographic Features in Pulmonary Embolism
Echocardiography in Prognosis and Management of Pulmonary Embolism
Echocardiography in Assessment of Response to Therapy in Pulmonary Embolism
Novel Methods to Assess Right Ventricular Function in Pulmonary Embolism
Transesophageal Echocardiography in Pulmonary Embolism
Distinguishing Pulmonary Embolism from Pulmonary Hypertension
Suggested Reading
Chapter 36: Pulmonary Hypertension
Introduction
Assessment of Right Ventricle Afterload/Pulmonary Vascular Function
Pulmonary Artery Systolic Pressure
Diastolic Pulmonary Artery Pressure
Mean Pulmonary Artery Pressure
The Right Atrium and Right Atrial Pressure
Other Measures of Right Ventricle Afterload
Pulmonary Arterial Acceleration Time
Right Ventricular Structure and Function
Right Ventricular Wall Thickness
Tricuspid Annular Plane Systolic Excursion
Right Ventricular Area Assessment
Three-Dimensional Volume Assessment
Doppler Tissue Imagings’ cm/s
Iso-Volumetric Acceleration
Right Ventricular E/e′
Strain/Strain Rate
Timing Measurements
Right Ventricular Isovolumetric Relaxation Time Measurement
Myocardial Performance Index or Tei Index
Right Ventricular Assessment During Exercise
Suggested Reading
References
Section VIII: Cardiac Masses
Chapter 37: Primary and Secondary Tumors
Introduction
Tumor Types
Primary Versus Secondary Tumors
Primary Benign Tumors
Myxoma
Lipoma
Papillary Fibroelastoma
Benign Versus Malignant
Primary Malignant Tumors
Secondary Tumors
Tumor Locations: Site-Specific Differential
Atrial Tumors
Ventricular Tumors
Valvular Tumors
Pericardial Tumors
Clinical Presentation of Tumors
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 38: Identification of Intracardiac Thrombus
Introduction
Intracardiac Sources of Emboli
Left Ventricle
Left Atrium
Right Ventricle/Right Atrium
Prosthetic Valves
Interatrial and Interventricular Septum
Nonthrombotic Causes of Embolism
Prevalence of and Risk Factors For Left Ventricular and Atrial Thrombi
Echocardiographic Appearance
Risk Factors For Embolization
Choice of Initial Test
Role of Follow-up Imaging
Prevention of Thromboembolism
Conclusions
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 39: Other Cardiac Masses
Introduction
Variants of Normal Structure
Degenerative/Acquired Masses
Postsurgical Masses
Extracardiac Structures
Ultrasound Artifacts
Suggested Reading
References
Section IX: Systemic Diseases Involving the Heart
Chapter 40: Echocardiography in Infective Endocarditis
Introduction
Diagnosis
Indications for Transthoracic Echocardiography and Transesophageal Echocardiography
Vegetations
Complications of Endocarditis
Abscess, Pseudoaneurysm, and Fistula
Right-sided Endocarditis
Nonvalvular Endocarditis
Device-Related Infective Endocarditis
Infection of Cardiac Shunts
Purulent Pericarditis
Echocardiographic Predictors of Outcomes
Embolism
Overall Prognosis
Surgery For Endocarditis
Echocardiographic Indicators for Surgery
Frequency of Echocardiography
Role of 3D Echocardiography
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 41: Other Systemic Diseases and the Heart
Introduction
Sarcoidosis
Hypereosinophilic Syndrome (Loeffler Endocarditis)
Thyroid Disease
Carcinoid Heart Disease (see Also Chapter 30)
Hemochromatosis
Muscular Dystrophies
Lysosomal Storage Diseases
Glycogen Storage Diseases
Fabry Disease
Mucopolysaccharidoses
Sphingolipidoses
Connective Tissue Disorders
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
Marfan Syndrome
Marantic Endocarditis
Diabetes, Hypertension, and Obesity
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 42: Echocardiography in Malignant Disease
Introduction
Baseline Assessment Prior to Initiation of Cancer Treatments
During Cancer Treatment
Contrast Echocardiography
Three-Dimensional Echocardiography
Other Imaging Modalities
Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction Surveillance Schedules
Anthracyclines
Trastuzumab
Left Ventricular Diastolic Function
Other
Right Ventricular Function
Valvular Assessment
Pericardial Disease
Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
Cardiac Masses
Stress Echocardiography
After Treatment: Survivorship
Survivors of Thoracic Radiation Therapy
Survivors of Childhood Malignancies
Future Directions
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Section X: Congenital Heart Disease in the Adult
Chapter 43: Atrial Septal Defect
Introduction
Anatomy/Embryology
Patent Foramen Ovale
Clinical Presentation of Atrial Level Defects
Atrial Septal Defects
Venous Septation Defects
Imaging Approach
Atrial Level Shunting Closure
Imaging During Percutaneous Closure
Additional Techniques and Pitfalls
Clues To Undiagnosed Atrial Level Shunting
Common Mistakes in Diagnosis
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 44: Ventricular Septal Defect
Introduction
Adult Presentation
Types/Locations of Ventricular Septal Defects
Perimembranous Ventricular Septal Defects
Muscular/Trabecular Ventricular Septal Defects
Outlet Ventricular Septal Defects
Inlet Ventricular Septal Defects
Diagnostic Clues to Inlet Ventricular Septal Defect or Atrioventricular Septal Defect
Basic Imaging Approach to Ventricular Septal Defects
Unique Ventricular Septal Defect Physiology
Double-Chambered Right Ventricle
Eisenmenger Syndrome
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 45: Other Common Congenital Defects in Adults
Introduction
Segmental Anatomy
Patent Ductus Arteriosus
Tetralogy of Fallot
Imaging Approach to the Adult With Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot
Key Imaging Views
Transposition of the Great Arteries
Coarctation
Fontan
Ebstein Anomaly
Suggested Reading
References
Section XI: Miscellaneous Topics in Echocardiography
Chapter 46: Handheld Echocardiography
Introduction
Current Handheld Devices
The Learning Curve
Validation of Handheld Devices
Suggested Protocol
Quantitative Assessment With Handheld Echocardiography
Specific Roles For Handheld Echocardiography
Handheld Echocardiography as a Screening Tool
Cost and Workflow Issues
Future Developments
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 47: Appropriate Use of Echocardiography
Introduction
Development of Appropriate Use Criteria
Application of Appropriate Use Criteria
Future Directions For Appropriate Use Criteria
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 48: Echocardiography in the Context of Other Cardiac Imaging Modalities
Introduction
Chamber Quantification: Volumes and Function
Morphology
Tissue Characterization
Coronary Disease
Cardiac Masses
Pericardial Disease
Diseases of the Aorta
Conclusion
Suggested Reading
References
Chapter 49: Transesophageal Echocardiography for Cardiac Surgery
Introduction
Role of the Intraoperative Echocardiographer
Impact of Intraoperative Transesophageal Echocardiography in Cardiac Surgery
Objectives of the Intraoperative Tee Exam
the Intraoperative Transesophageal Echocardiography Exam
Impact of Intraoperative Transesophageal Echocardiography in Noncardiac Surgery
Suggested Reading
References
Appendices
Appendix A: Reference Tables
Appendix B - Commonly Utilized Equations in Echocardiography
General Body Measures
Body Mass Index
Body Surface Area (Mosteller Formula)
Echocardiography
Left and Right Ventricle
Left Ventricular Volume (Teicholz Formula)
Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction (Simplified Quinones Equation)
Left Ventricular Fractional Shortening
Left Ventricular Mass (Linear Method, Cube Formula)
Relative Wall Thickness
Myocardial Performance, or Tei Index (Left Ventricular) (Fig. B.1; see also Fig. 14.12)
Myocardial Performance, or Tei Index (Right Ventricular)
Left Ventricular Wall Motion Score Index (for 17 Segment Left Ventricular Model)
Stroke Volume
Cardiac Output
Valves, General
Aortic Stenosis
Aortic Regurgitation
Regurgitant Volume by the PISA method
Regurgitant Volume by the Continuity Equation (Volumetric Method)
Regurgitant Fraction by the PISA/2D Method
Mitral Stenosis
Mitral Regurgitation
Regurgitant Volume by PISA Method
Regurgitant Volume by Continuity Equation (Volumetric Method) (see Fig. 28.13)
Regurgitant Fraction by PISA/2D Method
Tricuspid Regurgitation
Pulmonic Regurgitation
Pulmonary Vascular Resistance
Exercise Stress Testing
Suggested Reading
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
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L
M
N
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P
Q
R
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T
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