Environmental geology

Cover
Title
Copyright
Preface
Contents
SECTION I: FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER 1 Planet and Population: An Overview
1.1 Earth in Space and Time
The Early Solar System
The Planets
Earth, Then and Now
Life on Earth
1.2 Geology, Past and Present
The Geologic Perspective
Geology and the Scientific Method
The Motivation to Find Answers
Wheels Within Wheels: Earth Cycles and Systems
1.3 Nature and Rate of Population Growth
Growth Rates: Causes and Consequences
Growth Rate and Doubling Time
1.4 Impacts of the Human Population
Farmland and Food Supply
Population and Nonfood Resources
Uneven Distribution of People and Resources
Disruption of Natural Systems
Case Study 1 Earth's Moon
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
TEST YOUR LEARNING
EXPLORING FURTHER
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CHAPTER 2 Rocks and Minerals—A First Look
2.1 Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, and Compounds
Atomic Structure
Elements and Isotopes
Ions
The Periodic Table
Compounds
2.2 Minerals—General
Minerals Defined
Identifying Characteristics of Minerals
Other Physical Properties of Minerals
2.3 Types of Minerals
Silicates
Nonsilicates
2.4 Rocks
Case Study 2 Asbestos—A Tangled Topic
Igneous Rocks
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
The Rock Cycle
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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SECTION II: INTERNAL PROCESSES
CHAPTER 3 Plate Tectonics
3.1 Historical Roots
3.2 Accumulating Evidence
The Topography of the Sea Floor
Magnetism in Rocks—General
Paleomagnetism and Seafloor Spreading
Age of the Ocean Floor
Polar-Wander Curves
3.3 Plate Tectonics—Underlying Concepts
Stress and Strain in Geologic Materials
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
Locating Plate Boundaries
3.4 Types of Plate Boundaries
Divergent Plate Boundaries
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Transform Boundaries
3.5 How Far, How Fast, How Long, How Come?
Past Motions, Present Velocities
Why Do Plates Move?
Case Study 3 New Theories for Old—Geosynclines and Plate Tectonics
3.6 Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 4 Earthquakes
4.1 Earthquakes—Terms and Principles
Basic Terms
Types of Faults
Earthquake Locations
4.2 Seismic Waves and Earthquake Severity
Seismic Waves
Locating the Epicenter
Magnitude and Intensity
4.3 Earthquake-Related Hazards and Their Reduction
Ground Motion
Ground Failure
Tsunamis and Coastal Effects
Case Study 4.1 Megathrusts Make Mega-Disasters
Fire
4.4 Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting
Seismic Gaps
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction
Current Status of Earthquake Prediction
The Earthquake Cycle and Forecasting
Slow-Slip Earthquakes
Earthquake Early Warnings?
Public Response to Earthquake Hazards
Case Study 4.2 Understanding Faults Better—Parkfield and SAFOD
4.5 Earthquake Control?
4.6 Future Earthquakes in North America?
Areas of Widely Recognized Risk
Other Potential Problem Areas
Induced Seismicity
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 5 Volcanoes
5.1 Magma Sources and Types
5.2 Styles and Locations of Volcanic Activity
Continental Fissure Eruptions
Individual Volcanoes—Locations
Shield Volcanoes
Cinder Cones and Pyroclastics
Composite Volcanoes
5.3 Hazards Related to Volcanoes
Lava
Pyroclastics
Case Study 5.1 Living with Lava on Hawaii
Pyroclastic Flows—Nuées Ardentes
Lahars
Toxic Gases
Steam Explosions
Landslides and Collapse
Secondary Effects: Climate and Atmospheric Chemistry
5.4 Issues in Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
Classification of Volcanoes by Activity
The Volcanic Explosivity Index
Volcanic Eruption Precursors
Evacuation as Response to Eruption Predictions
5.5 More on Volcanic Hazards in the United States
Cascade Range
The Aleutians
Long Valley and Yellowstone Calderas
Case Study 5.2 Redoubt Volcano, Alaska
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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SECTION III: SURFACE PROCESSES
CHAPTER 6 Streams and Flooding
6.1 The Hydrologic Cycle
6.2 Streams and Their Features
Streams—General
Sediment Transport
Velocity, Gradient, and Base Level
Velocity and Sediment Sorting and Deposition
Channel and Floodplain Evolution
6.3 Flooding
Factors Governing Flood Severity
Flood Characteristics
Flash Floods
Stream Hydrographs
Flood-Frequency Curves
Case Study 6.1 How Big Is the One-Hundred-Year Flood?
6.4 Consequences of Development in Floodplains
6.5 Strategies for Reducing Flood Hazards
Restrictive Zoning and "Floodproofing"
Retention Ponds, Diversion Channels
Channelization
Levees
Flood-Control Dams and Reservoirs
Case Study 6.2 Life on the Mississippi: The Ups and Downs of Levees
Flood History, Flood Warnings
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 7 Coastal Zones and Processes
7.1 Nature of the Coastline
Waves and Tides
Sediment Transport and Deposition
Storms and Coastal Dynamics
7.2 Emergent and Submergent Coastlines
Causes of Long-Term Sea-Level Change
Signs of Changing Relative Sea Level
Present and Future Sea-Level Trends
7.3 Coastal Erosion and "Stabilization"
Beach Erosion, Protection, and Restoration
Cliff Erosion
7.4 Especially Challenging Coastal Environments
Barrier Islands
Estuaries
Case Study 7 Hurricanes and Coastal Vulnerability
7.5 Costs of Construction—and Reconstruction—in High-Energy Environments
Recognition of Coastal Hazards
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 8 Mass Movements
8.1 Factors Influencing Slope Stability
Effects of Slope and Materials
Effects of Fluid
Effects of Vegetation
Earthquakes
Quick Clays
8.2 Types of Mass Wasting
Falls
Slumps and Slides
Flows and Avalanches
8.3 Consequences of Mass Movements
Impact of Human Activities
A Compounding of Problems: The Venezuelan Coast
8.4 Possible Preventive Measures
Slope Stabilization
Recognizing the Hazards
Landslide Warnings?
Case Study 8 The Vaiont Dam—Reservoirs and Landslides
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 9 Ice and Glaciers, Wind and Deserts
9.1 Glaciers and Glacial Features
Glacier Formation
Types of Glaciers
Movement and Change of Glaciers
Glacial Erosion and Deposition
Ice Ages and Their Possible Causes
Case Study 9 Vanishing Glaciers, Vanishing Water Supply
9.2 Wind and Its Geologic Impacts
Wind Erosion
Wind Deposition
Dune Migration
Loess
9.3 Deserts and Desertification
Causes of Natural Deserts
Desertification
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 10 Climate—Past, Present, and Future
10.1 Major Controls on Global Climate; The Greenhouse Effect
10.2 Climate and Ice Revisited
The Hidden Ice: Permafrost
10.3 Oceans and Climate
The Thermohaline Circulation
El Niño
10.4 Other Aspects of Global Change
10.5 Evidence of Climates Past
Case Study 10 Taking Earth's Temperature
10.6 Whither for the Future? Climate Feedbacks, Predictive Uncertainty
Geoengineering?
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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SECTION IV: RESOURCES
CHAPTER 11 Groundwater and Water Resources
11.1 Fluid Storage and Mobility: Porosity and Permeability
11.2 Subsurface Waters
11.3 Aquifer Geometry and Groundwater Flow
Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
Darcy's Law and Groundwater Flow
Other Factors in Water Availability
11.4 Consequences of Groundwater Withdrawal
Lowering the Water Table
Compaction and Surface Subsidence
Saltwater Intrusion
11.5 Impacts of Urbanization on Groundwater Recharge
11.6 Karst and Sinkholes
11.7 Water Quality
11.8 Water Use, Water Supply
General U. S. Water Use
Regional Variations in Water Use
11.9 Case Studies in Water Consumption
The High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer System
The Aral Sea
Lake Chad
Case Study 11 The Contentious Colorado
11.10 Extending the Water Supply
Conservation
Interbasin Water Transfer
Desalination
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 12 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil Resources
12.1 Soil Formation
Soil-Forming Processes: Weathering
Soil Profiles, Soil Horizons
12.2 Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils
Color, Texture, and Structure of Soils
Soil Classification
12.3 Soils and Human Activities
Lateritic Soil
Wetland Soils
Soil Erosion
Case Study 12.1 Plantations in Paradise—Unintended Consequences
Soil Erosion Versus Soil Formation
Strategies for Reducing Erosion
Irrigation and Soil Chemistry
Case Study 12.2 Soils and Suspects
The Soil Resource—The Global View
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 13 Mineral and Rock Resources
13.1 Resources, Reserves, and Ore Deposits
13.2 Types of Mineral Deposits
Igneous Rocks and Magmatic Deposits
Hydrothermal Ores
Sedimentary Deposits
Other Low-Temperature Ore-Forming Processes
Metamorphic Deposits
13.3 Mineral and Rock Resources—Examples
Metals
Nonmetallic Minerals
Rock Resources
13.4 Mineral Supply and Demand
U.S. Mineral Production and Consumption
World Mineral Supply and Demand
Case Study 13.1 The Not-So-Rare Rare Earths
13.5 Minerals for the Future: Some Options Considered
Modern Methods in Mineral Exploration
Marine Mineral Resources
Conservation of Mineral Resources
Case Study 13.2 Mining Your Cell Phone?
13.6 Impacts of Mining-Related Activities
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 14 Energy Resources—Fossil Fuels
14.1 Formation of Oil and Natural Gas Deposits
14.2 Supply and Demand for Oil and Natural Gas
Oil
Case Study 14.1 The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: To Drill or Not to Drill?
Oil Sand
Natural Gas
Future Prospects for Oil and Gas
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Unconventional Natural Gas Sources
Conservation
14.3 Oil Spills
Case Study 14.2 Energy Prices, Energy Choices
14.4 Coal
Formation of Coal Deposits
Coal Reserves and Resources
Limitations on Coal Use
14.5 Environmental Impacts of Coal Use
Gases
Ash
Coal-Mining Hazards and Environmental Impacts
14.6 Oil Shale
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 15 Alternative Sources
15.1 Nuclear Power—Fission
Fission—Basic Principles
The Geology of Uranium Deposits
Extending the Nuclear Fuel Supply
Concerns Related to Nuclear Reactor Safety
Case Study 15.1 A Tale of Two Disasters: Chernobyl and Fukushima
Concerns Related to Fuel and Waste Handling
Risk Assessment, Risk Projection
15.2 Nuclear Power—Fusion
15.3 Solar Energy
Solar Heating
Solar Electricity
15.4 Geothermal Energy
Traditional Geothermal Energy Uses
Alternative Geothermal Sources
15.5 Hydropower
Limitations on Hydropower Development
15.6 Energy from the Oceans
15.7 Wind Energy
Case Study 15.2 Electricity's Hidden Energy Costs
15.8 Biofuels
Waste-Derived Fuels
Alcohol Fuels
SUMMARY
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SECTION V: WASTE DISPOSAL, POLLUTION, AND HEALTH
CHAPTER 16 Waste Disposal
16.1 Solid Wastes—General
16.2 Municipal Waste Disposal
Sanitary Landfills
Incineration
Ocean Dumping
16.3 Reducing Solid-Waste Volume
Handling (Nontoxic) Organic Matter
Recycling
Other Options
16.4 Toxic-Waste Disposal
Secure Landfills
Case Study 16.1 Decisions, Decisions …
Deep-Well Disposal
Other Strategies
16.5 Sewage Treatment
Septic Systems
Municipal Sewage Treatment
16.6 Radioactive Wastes
Radioactive Decay
Case Study 16.2 The Ghost of Toxins Past: Superfund
Effects of Radiation
Nature of Radioactive Wastes
Historical Suggestions: Space, Ice, Plate Tectonics, and the Deep-Sea Floor
Bedrock Caverns for Liquid Waste
Bedrock Disposal of Solid High-Level Wastes
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP): A Model?
The Long Road to Yucca Mountain: A Dead End?
No High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Yet
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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CHAPTER 17 Water Pollution
17.1 General Principles
Geochemical Cycles
Residence Time
Residence Time and Pollution
Trace Elements, Health, and Pollution
Point and Nonpoint Pollution Sources
17.2 Organic Matter
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Eutrophication
17.3 Agricultural Pollution
Fertilizers and Organic Waste
Sediment Pollution
Pesticides
17.4 Industrial Pollution
Inorganic Pollutants—Metals
Case Study 17.1 Lessons from Minamata
Other Inorganic Pollutants
Organic Compounds
Problems of Control
Thermal Pollution
Case Study 17.2 The Long Shadow of DDT
17.5 Reversing the Damage—Surface Water
17.6 Groundwater Pollution
The Surface Water– Groundwater Connection Explored
Tracing Pollution's Path
17.7 Reversing the Damage—Groundwater
Decontamination After Extraction
In Situ Decontamination
Damage Control by Containment—The Rocky Mountain Arsenal
17.8 New Technology Meets Problems from the Past: California Gulch Superfund Site, Leadville, Colorado
SUMMARY
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CHAPTER 18 Air Pollution
18.1 Atmospheric Chemistry—Cycles and Residence Times
18.2 Types and Sources of Air Pollution
Particulates
Carbon Gases
Sulfur Gases
Nitrogen Gases and "Smog Ozone"
The Ozone Layer and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Lead
Other Pollutants
Case Study 18 Indoor Air Pollution?
18.3 Acid Rain
Regional Variations in Rainfall Acidity and Impacts
18.4 Air Pollution and Weather
Thermal Inversion
Impact on Weather
18.5 Toward Air-Pollution Control
Air-Quality Standards
Control Methods
Automobile Emissions
Carbon Capture and Storage
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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SECTION VI: OTHER RELATED TOPICS
CHAPTER 19 Environmental Law and Policy
19.1 Resource Law: Water
Surface-Water Law
Groundwater Law
19.2 Resource Law: Minerals and Fuels
Mineral Rights
Mine Reclamation
19.3 International Resource Disputes
Law of the Sea and Exclusive Economic Zones
Antarctica
19.4 Pollution and Its Control
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Waste Disposal
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Defining Limits of Pollution
International Initiatives
19.5 Cost-Benefit Analysis
Problems of Quantification
Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Federal Government
19.6 Laws Relating to Geologic Hazards
Construction Controls
Other Responses to Earthquake Hazards
Flood Hazards, Flood Insurance
Problems with Geologic-Hazard Mitigation Laws
19.7 The National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
Case Study 19 A Tale of Two Pipelines
SUMMARY
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CHAPTER 20 Land-Use Planning and Engineering Geology
20.1 Land-Use Planning—Why?
20.2 Land-Use Options
20.3 The Federal Government and Land-Use Planning
20.4 Maps as a Planning Tool
Case Study 20.1 How Green Is My—Golf Course?
20.5 Engineering Geology—Some Considerations
Testing and Scale Modeling
20.6 Case Histories, Old and New
The Leaning Tower of Pisa
The Panama Canal
Boston's "Big Dig"
20.7 Dams, Failures, and Consequences
The St. Francis Dam
Three Gorges Dam
Other Examples and Construction Issues
Case Study 20.2 The Oroville Dam
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
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Appendix A: Geologic Time, Geologic Process Rates
Introduction
Relative Dating
Arranging Events in Order
Correlation
Uniformitarianism
How Old Is the Earth?
Early Efforts
Nineteenth-Century Views
Radiometric Dating
Radioactive Decay and Dating
Choice of an Isotopic System
Radiometric and Relative Ages Combined
The Geologic Time Scale
Geologic Process Rates
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Appendix B: Mineral and Rock Identification
Mineral Identification
A Note on Mineral Formulas
Rock Identification
Appendix C: Units of Measurement—Conversions
GLOSSARY
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INDEX
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