Environmental Biotechnology: Fundamentals to Modern Techniques

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
PART I: Biogeochemical Cycles, Pollution and Pollution Control
Chapter 1 Biogeochemical Cycles
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Reservoirs
Carbon Fixation and Energy Flow
Carbon Respiration
Organic Polymers
Carbohydrate-Based Polymers
Lignin
Humus
Methane
Methanogenesis
Methane Oxidation
Carbon Monoxide and Other C[sub(1)] Compounds
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Reservoirs
Nitrogen Fixation
Ammonia Assimilation (Immobilization) and Ammonification (Mineralization)
Ammonia Assimilation (Immobilization)
Ammonification (Mineralization)
Ammonium Oxidation
Nitrification
Anammox
Nitrate Reduction
Assimilatory Nitrate Reduction
Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction
Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium
Denitrification
Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur Reservoirs
Assimilatory Sulfate Reduction and Sulfur Mineralization
Processing of Sulfate for Uptake into Bacteria
Sulfur Oxidation
Chemoautotrophic Sulfur Oxidation
Photoautotrophic Sulfur Oxidation
Sulfur Reduction
Iron Cycle
Iron Reservoirs
Iron in Soils and Sediments
Iron in Marine Environments
Iron Oxidation
Chemoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs
Iron Reduction
Cycling of Manganese and Selenium
Cycling of Hydrogen
Transformation of Mercury
References
Chapter 2 Water Pollution
Sources and Effects of Water Pollutants
The Environmental Requirements of Aquatic Organisms
Organic Pollution
Nutrient Pollution
Eutrophication
Thermal Pollution
Heavy Metals
Ammonia, Cyanides, and Phenols
Pesticides
Suspended Solids
Extreme pH and Acidification
Detergents
Oil and Petroleum Products
The Toxicity of Pollutants to Aquatic Organisms
Bioaccumulation
Water Pollution and Public Health
Water Pollution and Pathogens
Bacterial Pathogens
Viral Pathogens
Parasitic Infections
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Soil Pollution
Pollutants of Agrochemical Sources
Insecticides
Organochlorines
Carbamates
Natural and Synthetic Pyrethroids
Herbicides
Organochlorine Compounds
Organophosphorus Herbicides
Triazine Derivatives
Pyridine Derivatives
Aliphatic Compounds
Fungicides
Inorganic and Organic Compounds of Heavy Metals
Derivatives of Phthalic Acid
Benzimidazole
Derivatives of Barbituric Acid
Fuel Spills in Farms
Soil Pollutants of Urban Sources
Power Generation Emissions
Soil Pollution Through Transport Activities
Soil Pollution by Waste and Sewage Sludge
Pollution Mechanisms and Soil–Pollutants Interaction
Physical Processes and Mechanisms of Pollution
Adsorptive Retention
Chemical Adsorption or Chemisorption
Factors Affecting Adsorption
Mineralogical Composition of the Soil
Soil Matrix (Grain Size Distribution)
Humic Substances and Their Distribution in the Soil
Chemical and Physical Properties of the Soil Solution
The Pollutants, Their Nature, and Chemical Constitution
Non-Adsorptive Retention
Trapping
Caking
Straining
Physical–Chemical Trapping
Precipitation
Infiltration
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Air Pollution
The Evolution of the Atmosphere
Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature
The Layers of the Atmosphere
Air Pollution
Gases Needed for Biological Processes
Ozone for Protection From Ultraviolet Radiation
A Reservoir for Water
Greenhouse Gases for Insulation
Particulates for Condensation
Air Pollutants and Air Pollution
Pollutants From Fossil Fuels
Pollutants From Secondary Chemical Reactions
Pollutants From Biomass Burning
Volatile Organic Compounds
Air Pollution and the Environment
External Factors That Affect Air Quality
The Effects of Particulates on the Environment
The Effects of Ozone on the Environment
Air Pollution and Human Health
Metal Poisoning
Asthma
Lung Cancer
Premature Deaths
Acid Rain
The Effects of Acid Rain
Acid Rain and Freshwater Ecosystems
The Effects of Acid Rain on Forests and Agriculture
Acid Destruction of Cultural Materials
Reducing Acid Rain Damage
Further Reading
PART II: Bioremediation
Chapter 5 Ex Situ Bioremediation Technologies
Biopiles
Biopile Components
Biopile Base
Aeration System
Covers
Irrigation Systems
Biopile Formation
Windrow Composting
Windrow Components
Windrow Forming and Turning
In-Vessel Composting
Landfarming
Landfarm Design
Landfarm Base
Perimeter Dike
Landfarm Operation
Irrigation
Nutrient Addition
Aeration
Soil Slurry Reactors
In Situ Bioremediation Technologies
Bioventing
Contaminants Biodegraded by Bioventing
Bioventing Design
Permeability: Gas and Vapor Transfer
Contaminant Distribution
Airflow Systems
Biosparging
Contaminants Treated by Biosparging
Biosparging Design
Permeability
Airflow Systems
Well Design and Construction
Number and Spacing of Wells
Nutrient Delivery
Permeable Reactive Barriers
PRB Design
Bioslurping
Bioaugmentation
Selection of Additional Traits
Plant-Associated Strain Selection and Delivery
Adaptation of Strains: Value of Priming or Activation
Bioaugmentation with GMOs
Novel Delivery Systems
Biostimulation
Oxygen
Oxygen Availability and Transport
Convective Air Movement
Oxygen Delivery to Groundwater
Oleophilic Fertilizer
Application of Nutrients
Co-metabolism and Alternative Electron Donors
Further Reading
Chapter 6 Decomposition of Plant Cell Wall Structures
Protopectinase and Pectinase Activities
Degradation of Hemicellulose
Lignin Structure
Lignin-Degrading Microorganisms
Bacterial Degradation
Fungal Degradation
Ecology of Fungal Lignocellulose Degradation
Fungal Leaf Litter Decay
Fungal Ligninolytic Mechanisms
Lignin Peroxidases
Manganese Peroxidases
Co-Oxidation of Lignin via Production of Oxyradicals
Laccases
Peroxide-Producing Enzymes
Detection of Ligninolytic Enzymes in Complex Substrates
Enzymatic Degradation of Cellulose
Starch Hydrolysis
Inulin Hydrolysis
Decomposition of Diverse Biopolymers Including Animal Fibrous Proteins
Chitin Digestion
Decomposition of Keratin
Fibroin Decomposition
Collagen Breakdown
Further Reading
Chapter 7 Microorganisms and Metal Pollutants
Cause for Concern
Metal Pollution
Anthropogenic Sources
Natural Sources
Microbial Metal Transformations
Oxidation-Reduction
Methylation
Physicochemical Methods of Metal Remediation
Microbial Approaches in the Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils and Sediments
Microbial Approaches in the Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Aquatic Systems
Further Reading
Chapter 8 Bioleaching
Principles of Microbial Metal Leaching
Leaching Mechanisms
Models of Leaching Mechanisms
Factors Influencing Bioleaching
Nutrients
O[sub(2)] and CO[sub(2)]
pH
Pulp Density
Temperature
Mineral Substrate
Heavy Metals
Surfactants and Organic Extractants
Leaching Techniques
In Vitro Methods
Percolator Leaching
Submerged Leaching
Column Leaching
Industrial Leaching Processes
Dump Leaching
Heap Leaching
Underground Leaching
Tank Leaching
In Situ Bioleaching
Bacterial Attachment on Mineral Surfaces
Copper Bioleaching
Uranium Bioleaching
Gold Bioleaching
Biooxidation in Heaps
Biooxidation with Stirred Tanks
Biooxidation with Thin Layer Technology (Coating)
Microbes Involved in Gold Bioleaching
Leaching of Metals with Fungi
Comparison to Thiobacillus spp
Fungal Metabolism
Abiotic Reactions
Fungal Leaching Techniques
Further Reading
Chapter 9 Microorganisms and Organic Pollutants
Introduction
The Overall Process of Biodegradation
Contaminant Structure, Toxicity, and Biodegradability
Genetic Potential
Toxicity
Bioavailability
Contaminant Structure
Steric Effects
Electronic Effects
Environmental Factors Affecting Biodegradation
Redox Conditions
Organic Matter Content
Nitrogen
Other Environmental Factors
Temperature
pH
Salinity
Water Activity
Bioremediation
Addition of Oxygen or Other Gases
Nutrient Addition
Sequential Anaerobic-Aerobic Degradation
Addition of Surfactants
Addition of Microorganisms or DNA
Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants
Aliphatics
Alkanes
Aerobic Conditions
Anaerobic Conditions
Halogenated Aliphatics
Aerobic Conditions
Anaerobic Conditions
Alicyclics
Aerobic Conditions
Anaerobic Conditions
Aromatics
Unsubstituted Aromatics
Aerobic Conditions
Anaerobic Conditions
Substituted Aromatics
Dioxins and PCBs
Heterocyclic Compounds
Pesticides
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
Toxicity, Sources of Contamination, and Legal Dispositions
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons as Long-Term Contaminants
PAHs-Degrading Microorganisms
Bacterial PAH Degradation Pathways
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Further Reading
Chapter 10 Biodegradation of Petroleum and Petroleum Products
Biodegradation of Petroleum
Effects of Biodegradation
Conditions for Biodegradation
Factors Affecting Biodegradation of Petroleum
Effect of Nutrients
Effect of Temperature
Effect of Dispersants
Rates of Oil Biodegradation
Effect of Weathering
Biodegradation of Naphtha and Gasoline
Remediation
Site Remediation
In Situ Air Stripping
Pump-and-Treat Systems
Vacuum-Enhanced Recovery
Single-Phase Vacuum Extraction
Dual-Phase Vacuum Extraction
Surfactant-Enhanced Aquifer Redemption
In Situ-Enhanced Bioremediation
Biodegradation of Kerosene and Diesel
Bioremediation
Diesel Fuel
Biodegradation of Fuel Oil
Biodegradation of Lubricating Oil
Biodegradation of Residua and Asphalt
Further Reading
Chapter 11 Microbial Degradation of Chlorinated Aromatic Compounds
Degradation of Chlorocatechols via the Modified Ortho-Cleavage Pathway
Degradation of Chlorocatechols via the Meta-Cleavage Pathway
Problems with the Meta-Cleavage Pathway in the Case of Chloroaromatics
Productive Use of the Meta-Cleavage Pathway for Chlorinated Catechols Substituted in Para-Position
Productive Degradation of 3-Chlorocatechol via the Meta-Cleavage Pathway
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Biological Transformation of PCBs
Degradation of PCB by Microorganisms
Anaerobic PCB Dechlorination
Aerobic Biodegradation of PCB
Biodegradation of Pesticides
Three Major Groups of Conventional Pesticides
Fate of Pesticides in the Environment
Pesticide Toxicity
Enzymes Involved in Pesticide Biodegradation
Hydrolases
Phosphotriesterases (PTEs)
Esterases
Oxidoreductases
Mixed Function Oxidases (MFOs)
Glutathione S-Transferase (GST)
Biodegradation of Pesticides
Phenoxyacetic Acid: 2,4-D
A s-Triazine: Atrazine
The N-Dealkylation Dead-End Cytochrome P[sub(450)] Pathway
The Mineralization Pathway
A Carbamate Pesticide: Carbofuran
Biodegradation of Explosives
Further Reading
Chapter 12 Biodegradation of Azo Dyes
Acid Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Toxicity Caused by Azo Dyes
Fungal Degradation of Dyes
Enzymes of White-Rot Fungi Involved in Azo Dye Decolorization
Dye Degradation by Immobilized Fungi
Degradation of Dyes by Yeasts
Further Reading
Chapter 13 Biosurfactants
Enhancing Bioavailability
Synthetic Surfactants and Bioremediation
A Potential Role for Biosurfactants
Types of Biosurfactants
Biosurfactants and Alkane Metabolism
Properties of Biosurfactants
Surface and Interfacial Activity
Temperature, pH, and Ionic Strength Tolerance
Biodegradability
Emulsion Forming and Emulsion Breaking
Chemical Diversity
Low Toxicity
Potential Applications of Biosurfactants
Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR)
Hydrocarbon Degradation
Hydrocarbon Degradation in Soil Environment
Hydrocarbon Degradation in Aquatic Environment
Biosurfactant and HCH Degradation
Further Reading
Chapter 14 Biosensors as Environmental Monitors
Enzyme-Based Biosensors
Whole Cell-Based Biosensors
Antibody-Based Biosensors (Immunosensors)
DNA-Based Biosensors
BioMEMs, Biomimetics, and Other Emerging Biosensor Technologies
Further Reading
PART III: Wastes and Waste Management
Chapter 15 Domestic Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater
Storm Water
Urban Systems
Industrial Systems
Agricultural Systems
Wastewater Treatment
Primary Treatment
Primary Sedimentation
Secondary Treatment of Sewage
Aerobic Breakdown of Raw Wastewaters
The Activated Sludge System
Microbiology of the Activated Sludge Process
Bulking in Activated Sludge Systems
Nutrition of Organisms in the Activated Sludge Process
Modifications of the Activated Sludge System
Efficiency of Activated Sludge Treatments
The Trickling Filter
Microbiology of the Trickling Filter
Rotating Disks
Oxidation Ponds
Microbiology of the Oxidation Pond
Anaerobic Sewage Systems
Treatment of the Sludge From Aerobic Sewage Treatment Systems
The Septic Tank
The Imhoff Tank
Cesspools
Tertiary Treatment
Removal of Pathogens by Sewage Treatment Processes
Removal of Organics and Inorganics by Sewage Treatment Processes
Sludge Processing
Primary Sludge Treatment
Stabilization Technologies
Aerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion
Sludge Processing to Produce Class A Biosolids
Composting
Lime and Heat Treatment
Lagoons
Further Reading
Chapter 16 Wastewater From Food Industries
Wastewater Composition and Treatment Strategies in the Food Processing Industry
Sugar Factories
Starch Factories
Vegetable Oil and Shortening Production
Potato Processing Industry
Slaughterhouses
Dairy Industry
Fruit Juice and Beverage Industry
Breweries
Distilleries
Further Reading
Chapter 17 Solid Waste Management
Solid Wastes
Solid Waste Characteristics
Municipal Solid Wastes
Industrial Solid Wastes
Construction and Demolition Solid Wastes
Street Sweepings
Water and Wastewater Sludges
Automotive Solid Wastes
Bulky Solid Wastes
Trees
Agricultural Solid Wastes
Mining Solid Wastes
Processing Solid Wastes
Sanitary Landfills
Basic Concepts
Biological Activity
Stimulating Bacterial Activity
Gas Production
Nutrient Deficient
Further Reading
Chapter 18 E-Waste Management
E-Waste
Materials Used in Electronics
Lead
Brominated Flame Retardants
Cadmium, Mercury, and Hexavalent Chromium
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Components
Mobile Phones
Televisions
Washing Machines
WEEE Management
Processing Techniques
Mechanical Processing
Hydrometallurgy
Biotechnology
Electrometallurgy
Pyrometallurgy
Recycling of E-Wastes
Further Reading
Chapter 19 Industrial Waste Management
Major Forms of Industrial Wastes
Treatment and Disposal of Industrial Wastes
Gas and Particulate Emissions
Chemical Precipitation
Flocculation, Coagulation, Dewatering–Filtration–Decanting–Drying
Stabilization (Neutralization) and Solidification
Oxidation
Landfilling
Landfarming of Refinery Sludges and Oilfield Wastes
Deep-Well Injection of Liquid Wastes
Incineration
Stockpiling, Tailings, and Muds
Reuse of Industrial Wastes
Metals Recovery
Energy Recovery
Industrial Waste Solvents
Industrial Waste Reuse
Further Reading
Chapter 20 Composting of Organic Wastes
Waste Materials for Composting
Fundamentals of Composting Process
Composting Technologies
Factors Affecting Efficient Composting
Composting Systems
Non-Reactor Composting
Reactor Composting
Compost Quality
Further Reading
Chapter 21 Vermicomposting
Earthworms and Soil Fertility
Soil Formation
Earthworms in Waste Management
Breakdown of Sewage Wastes by Earthworms
Earthworm Species Used in Vermicomposting
Eisenia Fetida (Savigny) and Eisenia Andrei, Bouché
Eudrilus Eugeniae (Kinberg)
Perionyx Excavatus (Perrier)
Dendrobaena Veneta (Rosa)
Polypheretima Elongata (Erseus)
Lumbricus Rubellus (Hoffmeister)
Methods of Processing Organic Wastes with Earthworms
Windrow Vermicomposting Can Be Carried Out in a Number of Different Ways
Static Pile Windrows (Batch)
Top-Fed Windrows (Continuous Flow)
Wedges (Continuous Flow)
Beds or Bins
Flow-Through Reactors
Methods of Harvesting Worms
Manual Methods
Self-Harvesting (Migration) Methods
Mechanical Methods
Vermicompost Tea
Further Reading
Chapter 22 Biogas Production
Advantages of Biogas
Anaerobic Digestion (AD)
Substrates for Biogas Production
Biogas Plant Components
Biogas Formation
Biology of Biogas Production
Hydrolysis
Acidogenic Phase
Acetogenic Phase
Methanogenic Phase
Factors Influencing Anaerobic Digestion Process
Temperature
pH Values and Optimum Intervals
Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs)
Ammonia
Macro- and Micronutrients (Trace Elements) and Toxic Compounds
Further Reading
Index