The growth of the environmental sciences has greatly expanded the scope of biological disciplines today's engineers have to deal with. Yet, despite its fundamental importance, the full breadth of biology has been given short shrift in most environmental engineering and science courses.Filling this gap in the professional literature, Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists introduces students of chemistry, physics, geology, and environmental engineering to a broad range of biological concepts they may not otherwise be exposed to in their training. Based on a graduate-level course designed to teach engineers to be literate in biological concepts and terminology, the text covers a wide range of biology without making it tedious for non-biology majors.Teaching aids include:* Notes, problems, and solutions* Problem sets at the end of each chapter* PowerPoints(r) of many figuresA valuable addition to any civil engineering and environmental studies curriculum, this book also serves as an important professional reference for practicing environmental professionals who need to understand the biological impacts of pollution.
Author(s): David A. Vaccari Peter F. Strom James E. Alleman
Edition: 1
Year: 2005
Language: English
Pages: 954
Tags: Биологические дисциплины;
Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page: ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS......Page 4
ISBN 0471722391......Page 5
3 The Substances of Life 35......Page 8
6 Genetics 116......Page 9
9 The Human Animal 173......Page 10
10 Microbial Groups 217......Page 11
11 Quantifying Microorganisms and Their Activity 290......Page 12
12 Effect of Microbes on Human Health 342......Page 13
14 Ecology: The Global View of Life 442......Page 14
15 Ecosystems and Applications 496......Page 15
17 The Science of Poisons 704......Page 16
20 Field and Laboratory Toxicology 788......Page 17
Appendixes 855......Page 18
Index 885......Page 19
PREFACE......Page 20
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 22
1.1 WHY ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS SHOULD STUDY BIOLOGY......Page 24
1.2 PRESENT PERSPECTIVES ON ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS......Page 25
1.3 PAST PERSPECTIVES ON ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS......Page 28
1.4 AMBIGUITY AND COMPLEXITY IN BIOLOGY......Page 29
1.5 CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS......Page 32
1.6 GUIDELINES FOR STUDY......Page 36
PROBLEMS......Page 37
REFERENCES......Page 38
2.1 WHAT IS LIFE?......Page 39
2.2 THE HIERARCHY OF LIFE......Page 41
2.3 EVOLUTION......Page 44
2.4 TAXONOMY......Page 49
2.5 INTERACTION OF LIVING THINGS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 53
2.6 BRIEF HISTORY OF LIFE......Page 56
REFERENCES......Page 57
3.1 BASIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL STRUCTURE......Page 58
3.2 CHEMICAL BONDING......Page 59
3.3 ACID–BASE REACTIONS......Page 61
3.4 PHYSICOCHEMICAL INTERACTIONS......Page 63
3.5 OPTICAL ISOMERS......Page 64
3.6.1 Carbohydrates......Page 67
3.6.2 Lipids......Page 70
3.6.3 Proteins......Page 74
3.6.4 Nucleic Acids......Page 81
3.6.5 Hybrid and Other Compounds......Page 84
3.7 DETECTION AND PURIFICATION OF BIOCHEMICAL COMPOUNDS......Page 85
PROBLEMS......Page 86
REFERENCES......Page 87
4 THE CELL: THE COMMON DENOMINATOR OF LIVING THINGS......Page 88
4.1 PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES......Page 89
4.2 THE BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE......Page 90
4.3 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT......Page 92
4.4 EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 95
4.5 CELL REPRODUCTION......Page 97
REFERENCES......Page 102
5.1.1 Some Basic Thermodynamics......Page 103
5.1.2 Oxidation–Reduction......Page 108
5.1.3 Phosphate Compounds and ATP......Page 109
5.1.4 Reaction Coupling......Page 110
5.2 ELEMENTARY KINETICS......Page 111
5.3 ENZYME KINETICS......Page 113
5.3.1 Single-Substrate Kinetics......Page 114
5.3.2 Multiple Substrates......Page 118
5.3.3 Effect of pH......Page 119
5.3.4 Effect of Temperature......Page 120
5.4.1 Glycolysis......Page 121
5.4.2 Fermentation......Page 122
5.4.3 Respiration......Page 124
5.4.4 Oxidation of Fats and Amino Acids......Page 128
5.4.5 Photosynthesis......Page 129
5.4.6 Biosynthesis......Page 136
PROBLEMS......Page 137
REFERENCES......Page 138
6.1 HEREDITY......Page 139
6.1.1 Mendel’s Experiments......Page 141
6.1.2 Sex Chromosomes......Page 143
6.1.3 Genetic Disease......Page 144
6.2 MOLECULAR BIOLOGY......Page 145
6.2.1 Protein Synthesis......Page 147
6.2.2 Gene Regulation......Page 149
6.2.3 Mutations......Page 152
6.2.4 DNA Repair......Page 153
6.3 GENETIC ENGINEERING......Page 154
6.3.1 DNA Analysis and Probes......Page 155
6.3.2 Cloning and Recombinant DNA......Page 158
6.3.3 Polymerase Chain Reaction......Page 159
6.3.4 Genetic Engineering and Society......Page 160
6.4 GENETIC VARIATION......Page 161
6.5 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION......Page 163
PROBLEMS......Page 164
REFERENCES......Page 165
7 THE PLANTS......Page 166
7.1 PLANT DIVISIONS......Page 167
7.2.1 Water and Nutrient Transport......Page 169
7.2.2 Plant Growth and Control......Page 173
PROBLEMS......Page 176
REFERENCES......Page 177
8.1 REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES......Page 178
8.2 INVERTEBRATE PHYLA OTHER THAN ARTHROPODS......Page 181
8.3.2 Annelids......Page 183
8.3.3 Arthropods......Page 184
8.3.4 LESSER PROTOSTOMES......Page 188
8.4.2 Chordates, Including the Vertebrates......Page 189
REFERENCE......Page 195
9 THE HUMAN ANIMAL......Page 196
9.1 SKIN......Page 197
9.2 SKELETAL SYSTEM......Page 198
9.3 MUSCULAR SYSTEM......Page 199
9.4.1 Nerve Signal Transmission......Page 201
9.4.2 Synaptic Transmission......Page 202
9.4.3 Nervous System Organization......Page 203
9.5.1 Homeostasis......Page 207
9.5.2 Hormones......Page 209
9.6 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM......Page 213
9.7 IMMUNITY AND THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM......Page 216
9.8 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM......Page 219
9.9 DIGESTION......Page 222
9.10 NUTRITION......Page 226
9.11 EXCRETORY SYSTEM......Page 230
9.12 REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 234
9.12.1 Prenatal Development......Page 237
REFERENCES......Page 239
10 MICROBIAL GROUPS......Page 240
10.1 EVOLUTION OF MICROBIAL LIFE......Page 241
10.2.1 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek......Page 242
10.2.2 Spontaneous Generation and the Beginnings of Microbiology......Page 243
10.3 DIVERSITY OF MICROBIAL ACTIVITIES......Page 246
10.3.2 Carbon Source......Page 247
10.3.3 Environmental Preferences......Page 248
10.4.1 Basis of Identification......Page 249
10.4.2 Prokaryotic ‘‘Species’’......Page 250
10.4.3 Naming of Microorganisms......Page 251
10.4.4 Characterization of Prokaryotes......Page 253
10.5 BACTERIA......Page 264
10.5.3 Thermomicrobia (Including Green Nonsulfur Bacteria)......Page 268
10.5.5 Chlorobia: Green Sulfur Bacteria......Page 269
10.5.6 Proteobacteria......Page 271
10.5.7 Firmicutes: Gram Positives......Page 281
10.5.8 Planctomycetacia......Page 285
10.5.9 Spirochetes......Page 286
10.5.12 Flavobacteria......Page 287
10.6.2 Crenarchaeota......Page 288
10.6.3 Euryarchaeota (Including Methanogens)......Page 289
10.7 EUKARYA......Page 290
10.7.1 Protozoans......Page 291
10.7.2 Algae......Page 294
10.7.3 Slime Molds......Page 302
10.7.4 Fungi......Page 304
10.8 NONCELLULAR INFECTIVE AGENTS: VIRUSES, VIROIDS, AND PRIONS......Page 308
10.8.1 Viruses......Page 309
REFERENCES......Page 311
11.1.1 Elemental Makeup......Page 313
11.1.2 Growth Factors......Page 316
11.2 MICROSCOPY......Page 317
11.2.1 Light Microscopes......Page 318
11.2.2 Electron Microscopes......Page 321
11.3.2 Storage......Page 322
11.4.1 Measurements of Total Mass......Page 323
11.4.2 Measurements of Cell Constituents......Page 324
11.5 COUNTS OF MICROORGANISM NUMBERS......Page 325
11.5.1 Direct Counts......Page 326
11.5.2 Indirect Methods......Page 328
11.5.3 Relationship between Numbers and Mass......Page 333
11.6 MEASURING MICROBIAL ACTIVITY......Page 334
11.6.1 Aerobic Respiration......Page 335
11.6.2 Anaerobic Systems......Page 337
11.7.1 Exponential Growth......Page 338
11.7.2 Batch Growth Curve......Page 343
11.7.3 Death, Viability, and Cryptic Growth......Page 348
11.7.4 Substrate Utilization......Page 350
11.7.5 Continuous Culture and the Chemostat......Page 352
11.7.6 Environmental Factors......Page 359
11.7.7 Inhibition......Page 361
REFERENCES......Page 363
12.1 MICROBIAL COLONIZATION OF HUMANS......Page 365
12.1.1 Abnormal Microbial Infection......Page 366
12.2 WATERBORNE DISEASES......Page 377
12.2.2 Sources of Contamination......Page 378
12.2.3 Routes of Infection......Page 379
12.2.4 Fecal–Oral Route......Page 380
12.2.5 Modern and Recent Outbreaks......Page 385
12.3 FOODBORNE DISEASES......Page 387
12.3.1 Bacterial Food Poisoning......Page 388
12.3.2 Bacterial Infections......Page 389
12.3.3 Other Agents......Page 390
12.4.2 Other Streptococcal Infections......Page 391
12.4.3 Tuberculosis......Page 392
12.4.5 Diphtheria and Whooping Cough (Pertussis)......Page 393
12.5 VECTOR-TRANSMITTED DISEASES......Page 394
12.5.2 Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness)......Page 395
12.5.6 Lyme Disease......Page 396
12.6 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES......Page 397
12.6.4 AIDS......Page 398
12.7.2 Gangrene......Page 399
12.7.7 Athlete’s Foot and Ringworm......Page 400
12.8.1 Physical Steps to Prevent Transmission......Page 401
12.8.2 Immunity and Vaccination......Page 402
12.8.3 Antibiotics and Antitoxins......Page 404
12.9.2 Microbiological Indicators......Page 405
REFERENCES......Page 408
13 MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS......Page 410
13.1 CARBON......Page 412
13.1.1 Carbon Reduction......Page 414
13.1.2 Carbon Oxidation......Page 419
13.1.3 Carbon in Environmental Engineering and Science......Page 420
13.2 NITROGEN......Page 437
13.2.1 Nitrogen Reduction......Page 440
13.2.2 Nitrogen Oxidation......Page 444
13.2.3 Nitrogen in Environmental Engineering and Science......Page 447
13.3 SULFUR......Page 452
13.3.1 Sulfur Reduction......Page 453
13.3.3 Sulfur in Environmental Engineering and Science......Page 455
13.4 IRON......Page 458
13.4.2 Iron Oxidation......Page 459
13.4.3 Iron in Environmental Engineering and Science......Page 460
13.5.3 Manganese in Environmental Engineering and Science......Page 462
REFERENCES......Page 464
14 ECOLOGY: THE GLOBAL VIEW OF LIFE......Page 465
14.1 FLOW OF ENERGY IN THE ECOSYSTEM......Page 466
14.1.1 Primary Productivity......Page 467
14.1.2 Trophic Levels, and Food Chains and Webs......Page 469
14.2 FLOW OF MATTER IN ECOSYSTEMS......Page 474
14.2.1 Sedimentary Cycles......Page 476
14.2.2 Carbon Cycle......Page 477
14.2.3 Hydrologic Cycle......Page 479
14.2.4 Nitrogen Cycle......Page 480
14.2.5 Sulfur Cycle......Page 483
14.2.6 Phosphorus Cycle......Page 485
14.2.7 Cycles of Other Minerals......Page 486
14.2.8 System Models of Cycles......Page 487
14.3.1 Limiting Factors and Interactions......Page 489
14.3.2 Resources and Environmental Conditions......Page 491
14.3.3 Tolerated Range of Factors......Page 492
14.3.4 Species Interactions......Page 493
14.4.1 Growth Models: Temporal Structure of Populations......Page 495
14.4.2 Species Richness and Diversity: Synoptic Structure of Communities......Page 507
14.4.3 Development and Succession: Temporal Structure of Communities......Page 509
14.4.4 Distribution vs. Abundance: Spatial Structure of Communities......Page 511
14.5 HUMANS IN THE BALANCE......Page 513
PROBLEMS......Page 515
REFERENCES......Page 517
15.1 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS......Page 519
15.1.1 Forest Nutrient Cycles......Page 522
15.1.2 Soil Ecology......Page 523
15.2 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS......Page 529
15.2.1 Aquatic Environments......Page 530
15.2.2 Biota......Page 531
15.2.3 Succession in Lakes......Page 543
15.2.4 Microbial Loop......Page 545
15.2.5 River Productivity......Page 546
15.2.6 Nutrients and Eutrophication in Lakes......Page 549
15.2.7 Organic Pollution of Streams......Page 553
15.3 WETLANDS......Page 559
15.3.1 Hydric Soils......Page 561
15.3.2 Hydrophytic Vegetation......Page 563
15.3.3 Wetlands Animals......Page 566
15.3.4 Hydrology and Wetlands Ecology......Page 568
15.3.6 Major Wetland Types......Page 569
15.3.7 Wetland Law and Management......Page 572
15.4 MARINE AND ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS......Page 575
15.4.1 Productivity and Nutrients......Page 576
15.4.2 Marine Adaptations......Page 580
15.4.3 Marine Communities......Page 581
15.4.4 Adverse Impacts on Marine Ecosystems......Page 585
15.5 MICROBIAL ECOLOGY......Page 587
15.6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF GREENHOUSE GASES AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 590
15.7 ACID DEPOSITION......Page 592
15.8 ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION......Page 594
PROBLEMS......Page 597
REFERENCES......Page 598
16 BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL......Page 600
16.1 WASTEWATER TREATMENT......Page 603
16.1.1 Process Fundamentals......Page 605
16.1.2 Attached-Growth Systems......Page 609
16.1.3 Suspended-Growth Systems......Page 623
16.1.4 Stabilization Lagoon Systems......Page 641
16.1.5 Constructed Wetland Systems......Page 646
16.2 SLUDGE TREATMENT......Page 656
16.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion......Page 659
16.2.2 Aerobic Digestion......Page 669
16.2.3 Composting......Page 675
16.3 POTABLE WATER TREATMENT......Page 682
16.4 WATER AND WASTEWATER DISINFECTION TREATMENT......Page 685
16.5 SOLID WASTE TREATMENT......Page 691
16.6 AIR TREATMENT......Page 694
16.7.1 Phytoremediation......Page 698
16.7.2 Bioremediation......Page 707
PROBLEMS......Page 722
REFERENCES......Page 725
17 THE SCIENCE OF POISONS......Page 727
17.1 MECHANISMS OF TOXICITY......Page 728
17.2 ABIOTIC FACTORS THAT AFFECT TOXICITY......Page 731
17.3 INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY......Page 734
17.4 TOXIC EFFECTS......Page 735
17.4.1 Biochemical and Physiological Effects......Page 736
17.4.4 Teratogenesis......Page 737
17.4.5 Carcinogenesis......Page 738
17.4.6 Histological Effects......Page 743
17.4.7 Effects on Particular Organs or Organ Systems......Page 744
17.4.8 Effects at the Individual Level......Page 752
17.4.9 Effects at the Ecological Level......Page 753
17.4.10 Microbial Toxicity......Page 754
REFERENCES......Page 755
18.1 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES......Page 757
18.2 UPTAKE MECHANISMS......Page 765
18.3 ABSORPTION AND ROUTES OF EXPOSURE......Page 766
18.4 DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE......Page 769
18.5 BIOTRANSFORMATION......Page 770
18.5.1 Phase I Reactions......Page 771
18.5.2 Phase II Reactions......Page 773
18.6 EXCRETION......Page 776
18.7 PHARMAKOKINETIC MODELS......Page 778
18.7.1 Dynamic Model and the Half-Life......Page 781
18.7.2 Steady-State Model and Bioaccumulation......Page 783
18.7.3 Equilibrium Model and Bioconcentration......Page 784
18.7.4 Food Chain Transfer and Biomagnification......Page 786
18.7.5 Multicompartment Models......Page 787
18.8 EFFECT OF EXPOSURE TIME AND MODE OF EXPOSURE......Page 788
PROBLEMS......Page 790
REFERENCES......Page 791
19 DOSE–RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS......Page 793
19.1 TOLERANCE DISTRIBUTION AND DOSE–RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS......Page 795
19.2 MECHANISTIC DOSE–RESPONSE MODELS......Page 799
19.3.1 Low-Dose Extrapolation......Page 800
19.4 INTERACTIONS......Page 803
19.4.1 Nonadditive Interactions......Page 806
19.6 OTHER MEASURES OF TOXIC EFFECT......Page 808
PROBLEMS......Page 809
REFERENCES......Page 810
20.1 TOXICITY TESTING......Page 811
20.1.2 Test Duration......Page 812
20.1.3 Selecting Organisms......Page 813
20.1.5 Route of Administration and Dosage......Page 815
20.1.7 Other Experimental Variables......Page 816
20.1.8 Conventional Toxicity Tests......Page 817
20.1.9 In Situ Measurement of Conventional Toxicity......Page 819
20.1.12 Testing for Carcinogenicity and Teratogenicity......Page 820
20.1.13 Mutagenicity Testing and In Vitro Tests......Page 821
20.1.14 Extrapolation from Animals to Humans......Page 822
20.2 EPIDEMIOLOGY......Page 823
REFERENCES......Page 825
21.1 METALS......Page 826
21.2 PESTICIDES......Page 830
21.2.1 Toxic Effects......Page 831
21.2.2 Ecosystem Effects......Page 834
21.3 HYDROCARBONS, SOLVENTS, PAHs, AND SIMILAR COMPOUNDS......Page 836
21.4 HALOGENATED ORGANICS......Page 842
21.5 AIR POLLUTANTS......Page 847
21.6 WATER POLLUTANTS......Page 850
21.7 TOXICITY TO MICROBES......Page 852
21.8 IONIZING RADIATION......Page 854
21.8.1 Dosimetry......Page 857
21.8.2 Radiation Exposure and Risks......Page 860
REFERENCES......Page 863
22.1 RISK ASSESSMENT......Page 865
22.1.1 Human Health Risk Assessment......Page 866
22.1.2 Ecological Risk Assessment......Page 870
22.2 TOXICITY REDUCTION EVALUATION......Page 873
PROBLEMS......Page 875
REFERENCES......Page 876
APPENDIXES......Page 878
A......Page 908
B......Page 911
C......Page 914
D......Page 919
E......Page 921
F......Page 923
G......Page 925
H......Page 927
I......Page 928
L......Page 930
M......Page 932
N......Page 935
O......Page 938
P......Page 939
R......Page 943
S......Page 945
T......Page 950
U......Page 952
W......Page 953
Z......Page 954