Enhancing Resilience of Dryland Agriculture Under Changing Climate: Interdisciplinary and Convergence Approaches

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: Dryland Agriculture and Climate Change
1: Drylands: An Introduction
1.1 Drylands under a Climate-Changing Scenario
1.2 Challenges in Dryland Agriculture
1.3 Management of Drylands for Sustainable Agriculture
1.4 Future Prospects in Dryland Agriculture
References
2: Current State and Prediction of Future Global Climate Change and Variability in Terms of CO2 Levels and Temperature
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept of Climate Change (CC) and Climate Variability (CV)
2.3 Observed Changes in the Climate System
2.3.1 Recent Developments and Current Trends in CO2 and Other GHGs Emissions
2.3.2 Surface Temperature (ST)
2.3.3 Rise in Mean Sea Level (MSL)
2.3.4 Extreme Weather Events (EWEs)
2.4 Emission Trends, Drivers, and Impacts of CC
2.4.1 Emission Trends and Drivers
2.4.1.1 Natural Drivers
2.4.1.2 Anthropogenic Drivers
2.4.2 Impacts of CC
2.5 Predict Future CC
2.5.1 Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)
2.5.1.1 RCP2.6
2.5.1.2 RCP4.5
2.5.1.3 RCP6.0
2.5.1.4 RCP8.5
2.5.2 RCP-Based Projected Changes in the Climate System
2.5.2.1 Future Change in Atmospheric Temperature
2.5.2.2 Future Change in Carbon Cycles
2.5.3 Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs)
2.5.3.1 SSP1: ``Sustainability´´
2.5.3.2 SSP2: ``Middle of the Road´´
2.5.3.3 SSP3: ``Regional Rivalry´´
2.5.3.4 SSP4: ``Inequality´´
2.5.3.5 SSP5: ``Fossil-Fueled Development´´
2.5.4 SSP-Based Future Climate Projections
2.6 Strategies for Combating CC Effects
2.6.1 Afforestation and Reforestation
2.6.2 Environmental Greening
2.6.3 Agroforestry
2.6.4 Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices
2.6.5 Transport
2.6.6 Societal Controls
2.6.7 Policies and Regulations
2.7 Conclusion
References
3: Vulnerability of Dryland Agriculture over Non-dryland Agriculture toward the Changing Climate
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Impact of Climate Change on Dryland System
3.3 Need of Vulnerability Assessment
3.4 Dryland Agriculture Implications under Climate Change
3.5 Drylands´ Vulnerability to Climate Change
3.5.1 Crop Rotation
3.5.2 Residue Management
3.5.3 Water Management
3.5.4 Conservation Agriculture
3.5.5 Germplasm
3.5.6 Participatory of Locals
3.5.7 Participatory Plant Breeding
3.5.8 Changes in Cropping Patterns
3.5.9 Carbon Sequestration and Increased Resilience of Soils
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Climate Risk Management in Dryland Agriculture: Technological Management and Institutional Options to Adaptation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Climate-Resilient Technologies in Dryland Agriculture
4.3 Seasonal Climate Forecasts (SCFs) for Climate Risk Management in Dryland Agriculture
4.4 Climate Risk Management Approach for Climate Adoption in Dryland Agriculture
4.4.1 Shift in Agricultural Systems
4.4.2 Climate-Proof Crop Management and Irrigation Planning Systems
4.4.3 Crop Management Aspects
4.4.3.1 Crop Diversification (Crop Rotation, Intercropping, and Agroforestry)
4.4.3.2 Suitable Crop Species (Millets and Pulses)
4.4.3.3 Conservation Agriculture
4.4.4 Water Management Aspects
4.4.4.1 Judicial Irrigation Practices
4.4.4.2 Rainwater Harvesting
4.5 Technological Interventions for Climate Risk Management in Dryland Agriculture
4.5.1 Shifting to Resilient Crops and Adapted Varieties
4.5.2 Improvisations with Agronomic Interventions
4.5.3 Robust, Planned, and Integrated Watershed Management
4.6 Institutional Options for Climate Risk Management in Dryland Agriculture
4.6.1 Index-Based Agricultural Insurance
4.6.1.1 Weather Index-Based Insurance
4.6.2 Village Climate Risk Management Committee
4.7 Social Protection Programs for Climate Risks Prone Areas
4.8 Agrometeorological Advisory Services (AAS)
4.9 Conclusion
References
Part II: Management of Natural Resources
5: Achieving Land Degradation Neutrality to Combat the Impacts of Climate Change
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Climate and Soil Interaction
5.1.2 Food Security in a Changing Climate
5.1.3 Does the Soil Properties and Processes Influence Climate Change? (Biogeochemical Cycles)
5.1.4 Soil Carbon Active and Inactive Pools
5.1.5 Soils and the Carbon Sequestration
5.2 Land Degradation Vis-à-Vis Agriculture
5.3 Biomass Production Threat to Food Security and Land Degradation
5.4 Sustainable Land Management (SLM) and Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)
5.5 The Human Facet of Land Degradation and Forest Degradation
5.6 Factors Affecting Land Degradation
5.6.1 Processes of Land Degradation
5.6.2 Types of Land Degradation Processes
5.6.3 Drivers of Land Degradation
5.7 Attribution of Climate Change Concerning Land Degradation
5.8 Localized Efforts to Combat Land Deterioration
5.9 Predictions of Land Deterioration Due to Climate Change
5.9.1 Land Degradation´s Direct Effects
5.9.2 Land Degradation´s Indirect Effects
5.9.3 Effects of Land Degradation Brought on by Climate Change on Food Security
5.10 Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)
5.11 Potential Options in Achieving LDN
5.11.1 Agricultural and Soil Management Techniques
5.11.2 Mechanically Conserving Soil and Water
5.11.3 Agroforestry
5.11.4 Local Farmers´ Knowledge of Addressing Land Degradation
5.11.5 Decreasing Deforestation, Improving Forest Quality, and Boosting Afforestation
References
6: Establishing Linkages among Changes in Land Use, Vegetation, and Croplands to Arrest Soil Erosion and Desertification
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Land-Use Systems
6.3 Land-Use and Land-Cover Changes (LULC)
6.3.1 Types of Land -Use Changes and their Major Drivers
6.3.1.1 Deforestation
6.3.1.2 Rangeland Modification
6.3.1.3 Agricultural Intensification
6.3.1.4 Urbanization
6.4 Impact of Land-Use Change on Land Degradation
6.4.1 Impact of Changes in Land Use on Soil Erosion
6.4.2 Impact of Changes in Land Use on Land Degradation and Desertification
6.5 Impact of Changes in Vegetation on Soil Erosion
6.5.1 Mechanism of Vegetation Effects on Soil Erosion
6.6 Impact of Changes on Vegetation Due to Land Degradation and Desertification
6.7 Impact of Changes in Cropland on Soil Erosion
6.7.1 Soil Erosion and Cropland
6.8 Impact of Changes in Cropland on Land Degradation and Desertification
6.9 Establishing Relationship between Land-Use Changes and Vegetation on Soil Erosion and Degradation
6.10 Alternate Land-Use Strategies for Arresting Soil Erosion and Land Degradation
6.11 Conclusion
References
7: Management of Salt-Affected Soils for Increasing Crop Productivity
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Factors for Development of Salt-Affected Soils
7.3 Classification and Characteristics of Salt-Affected Soils
7.3.1 Saline Soils
7.3.2 Alkali Soils
7.3.3 Saline-Alkali Soils
7.4 Reclamation and Management of Salt-Affected Soils
7.4.1 Physical Methods
7.4.1.1 Scraping
7.4.1.2 Sanding
7.4.1.3 Profile Inversion
7.4.1.4 Deep Ploughing and Subsoiling
7.4.1.5 Leaching
7.4.1.6 Drainage System
7.4.2 Chemical Methods
7.4.3 Biological Methods
7.5 Approaches for Strengthening both Productivity and Income of Farmers
7.6 Conclusions
References
8: Role of Water Harvesting and Supplemental Irrigation in Enhancing Agriculture Productivity of Dryland under Climate Change
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Role of Climate-Resilient Water Management in Dryland Agriculture
8.2.1 Concept and Component of Water Harvesting
8.2.2 Water Harvesting Techniques
8.2.2.1 Micro-Catchment System
8.2.2.2 Macro-Catchment System
8.2.2.3 Indian Traditional Water Harvesting Structures
8.2.2.4 Modern Methods of Water Harvesting Structures
8.2.3 Water Storage and Purpose
8.3 Supplemental Irrigation
8.3.1 Characteristics of Supplemental Irrigation (SI)
8.4 Role of Water Harvesting and Supplemental Irrigation in Enhancing Agricultural Productivity of Drylands under Climate Chan...
8.4.1 Increase in Water Productivity
8.4.2 Increase in Crop Productivity
8.4.3 Deficit Supplemental Irrigation
8.4.4 Supplemental Irrigation in Protected Cultivation
8.4.5 Optimization of Supplemental Irrigation
8.4.6 Increasing Land and Water Productivity by Adopting Supplemental Irrigation
8.5 Effect of Water Harvesting on Land and Water Productivity
8.5.1 Increasing Land and Water Productivity by Adopting Water Harvesting
8.5.2 In-Situ Rainwater Harvesting
8.5.3 Ex-Situ Rainwater Harvesting
8.6 Future Prospects and Conclusion
References
9: Assessment and Management of Soil and Water Erosion in Dryland Ecosystem
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Land Degradation in Dryland Ecosystems
9.3 Drivers of Land Degradation and its Consequences
9.3.1 Direct Drivers
9.3.1.1 Soil Erosion
9.3.1.2 Climate Change
9.3.1.3 Land-Use Change
9.3.2 Indirect Drivers
9.3.2.1 Intensive Agriculture
9.3.2.2 Salinity Hazard
9.3.2.3 Ineffective Planning and Governance Policies
9.4 Sustainable Land Management Strategies
9.5 Conclusion
References
10: Advances in Micro-Irrigation Practices for Improving Water Use Efficiency in Dryland Agriculture
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Status of Micro-Irrigation in India and at a Global Scale
10.2.1 Global Scenario of Sprinkler and Micro-Irrigation
10.2.2 Indian Scenario of Sprinkler and Micro-Irrigation
10.2.3 Timeline of Micro-Irrigation Development in India
10.3 Climate Change and Water Use Efficiency
10.3.1 Water Use Efficiency (WUE): A Concept
10.3.2 Climate Change Impact on Water Availability, Demand, and WUE
10.4 Advances Micro-Irrigation Technologies for Enhancing Water use Efficiency
10.4.1 Deficit Irrigation (DI)
10.4.2 Partial Root-Zone Drying (PRD)
10.4.3 Alternate Partial Root-Zone Irrigation (APRI)
10.4.4 Wastewater Application Using MIS
10.4.5 Reverse Osmosis Subsurface Drip Irrigation
10.4.6 Internet of Things (IoT) in Micro-Irrigation
10.4.7 Soil Moisture Sensor in Micro-Irrigation
10.5 Potential and Challenges of Micro-Irrigation in Dryland Agriculture
10.6 Conclusions
References
11: Enhancing Agricultural Water Productivity Using Deficit Irrigation Practices in Water-Scarce Regions
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Definition and Feature of DI
11.3 Types of Deficit Irrigation
11.3.1 Regulated Deficit Irrigation
11.3.2 Partial Root Zone Drying
11.4 Water Productivity and Deficit Irrigation
11.5 Deficit Irrigation Scheduling
11.6 Techniques for Enhancing Water Use Efficiency
11.6.1 Agronomical Measures
11.6.2 Mulching
11.6.3 Tillage
11.6.4 Intercropping/Mixed Cropping and Crop Rotation
11.6.5 Nutrient Management
11.6.6 Use of Antitranspirants
11.6.7 Crop Choice and Improved Varieties
11.6.8 Engineering Measures
11.6.9 Water Harvesting
11.6.10 In Situ Water Conservation
11.6.11 Terraces
11.6.12 Contour Furrow
11.6.13 Contour Bunds
11.6.14 Tied Ridges
11.6.15 Land Levelling with Lasers and Mini Benches
11.6.16 Windbreaks and Shelterbelts
11.7 Irrigation Methods
11.7.1 Alternate Furrow Irrigation (AFI) Method
11.7.2 Surge Irrigation
11.7.3 Pressurized Irrigation System
11.7.4 Sensor-Based Irrigation System
11.7.5 Decision Support System (DSS)
11.7.6 IOT-Based Smart Irrigation System
11.8 Economics of Deficit Irrigation Strategies
11.8.1 Bio-Economic Model for Deficit Irrigation
11.8.2 Land Limiting Condition and Opportunity Cost of Water
11.8.3 Empirical Models Used in Deficit Irrigation Economics
11.9 Conclusion and Outlook
References
12: Meta-Analysis Studies Emphasizing Activities Related to Natural Resources Management for Imparting Resilience to Dryland A...
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Main Dryland Agricultural Areas Worldwide
12.3 Keys Challenges and Issues in Dryland Agriculture
12.3.1 Declining Natural Resources Management
12.3.2 Climate Change Scenario in Dryland Agriculture
12.3.3 Socioeconomic Issues
12.4 Opportunities for Dryland Agriculture Resilience
12.4.1 Technological Approaches
12.4.2 Efficient Soil, Water, and Nutrient Management
12.4.3 Improved Agronomic Practices
12.4.4 Breeding and Genetic Resources for Abiotic Stress
12.4.5 Use of GIS and Remote Sensing and Simulation Models for Identifying the Constraints and Yield-Gap Analysis
12.4.6 Policies that Need to be Adopted
12.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Part III: Improving Sustainability of Dryland Farming System by Improving Reliability and Resilience
13: Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration in Dryland Soils to Alleviate Impacts of Climate Change
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Need for Carbon Sequestration in Dryland Regions
13.2.1 Precipitation on Carbon Sequestration
13.2.2 Temperature on Carbon Sequestration
13.2.3 Soil Erosion on Carbon Sequestration
13.2.4 Soil Organic Matter Content on Carbon Sequestration
13.2.5 Soil Biodiversity and Livestock on Carbon Sequestration
13.2.6 Social and Economic Barriers to Carbon Sequestration
13.3 Dry Land as an Organic Carbon Storage Zone
13.4 Desertification and Organic Carbon Sequestration Potential
13.4.1 Biochar as Organic Carbon Source
13.4.2 Ramial Chipped Wood (RCW) on Carbon Sequestration
13.5 Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration in Mitigating Climate Change
13.5.1 Humus on Carbon Sequestration
13.5.2 Is there any Specific Carbon Concentration in Soil?
13.5.3 Improving Soil Health and Mitigating Climate Change
13.6 Climate Change´s Possible Effects on Soil Quality and Soil Organic Matter
13.7 Potential of World Soil on Carbon Sequestration
13.8 Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation
13.8.1 Alternate Land-Use Systems
13.8.2 Agroforestry
13.8.3 Efficient Water Management Techniques
13.8.4 Resource Conservation Technologies
13.9 Development of Policies Related to Carbon Sequestration in Dry Land
13.10 Conclusions
References
14: Soil Inorganic Carbon in Dry Lands: An Unsung Player in Climate Change Mitigation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Carbon Sequestration in Dry Lands
14.3 Dry Land: A Store House of SIC
14.4 Factors Affecting SIC Storage
14.4.1 Soil Factors
14.4.1.1 Soil pH
14.4.1.2 Soil Microbial Activity and Respiration
14.4.1.3 Other Soil Physicochemical Properties
14.4.2 Anthropogenic Factors
14.5 SIC and Climate Change
14.6 Conclusion
References
15: Remediation of Polluted Soils for Managing Toxicity Stress in Crops of Dryland Ecosystems
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Kinds of Pollutants
15.2.1 Heavy Metals
15.2.2 Radionuclides
15.2.3 Asbestos
15.2.4 Organic Pollutants
15.2.5 Emerging Pollutants
15.3 Strategies for Remediation of Polluted Soils
15.3.1 Physicochemical Methods
15.3.1.1 Landfilling
15.3.1.2 Excavation and off-Site Disposal of Polluted Soils
15.3.1.3 Surface Capping
15.3.1.4 Encapsulation
15.3.1.5 Soil Washing (Soil Flushing)
15.3.1.6 Soil Vapour Extraction
15.3.1.7 Solidification
15.3.1.8 Chemical Immobilization
15.3.1.9 Chemical Dehalogenation
15.3.1.10 Chemical Oxidation-Reduction
15.3.1.11 Activated Carbon
15.3.2 Thermal Remediation Techniques
15.3.2.1 Thermal Desorption
15.3.2.2 Incineration
15.3.2.3 Vitrification
15.3.2.4 Pyrolysis
15.3.2.5 Hot Air Injection
15.3.2.6 Steam Injection
15.3.2.7 Smouldering
15.3.2.8 Radiofrequency and Microwave Heating
15.3.2.9 Electric Resistance Heating (ERH)
15.3.2.10 Electrokinetic Separation
15.3.2.11 Photocatalytic Oxidation
15.3.3 Biological Techniques
15.3.3.1 Phytoremediation
15.3.3.2 Phytostabilization
15.3.3.3 Phytostimulation
15.3.3.4 Phytodegradation
15.3.3.5 Phytoextraction (Phytoaccumulation)
15.3.3.6 Disposal of Hyperaccumulators
15.3.3.7 Limitations of Phytoremediation
15.3.3.8 Bioventing
15.3.3.9 Bioslurping
15.3.3.10 Biosparging
15.3.3.11 Biostimulation
15.3.3.12 Bioaugmentation
15.3.3.13 Bioattenuation
15.3.3.14 Landfarming
15.3.3.15 Composting
15.3.3.16 Biopiling
15.3.3.17 Slurry Phase
15.3.4 Application of Nanotechnology in Remediation of Polluted Soils
15.4 Selection of Remediation Technologies
15.5 Conclusion
References
16: Fertilizer Management in Dryland Cultivation for Stable Crop Yields
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Integrated Nutrient Management Strategy for Nutrient Management in Dryland Agriculture
16.2.1 Concept of INM
16.2.2 Steps to Formulate INM Strategies
16.2.3 Principles of INM and Improved Fertilizer Management Through INM
16.2.4 Progress in INM Practices
16.3 Nutrient Management Through Principles of Conservation Agriculture
16.3.1 Nutrient Management in Dryland Regions Through Each Principle of CA
16.4 Use of Biofertilizer in Dry Lands as Viable Option for Source of Nutrient to Plants
16.5 Use of Biochar for Nutrient Management in Dryland Areas
16.6 Time and Place of Nutrient Application in Dryland Areas
16.7 Conclusion
References
17: Development of a Successful Integrated Farming System Model for Livelihood Sustenance of Dryland Farmers
17.1 Introduction and Background
17.2 Strategies to Increase Farm Income
17.3 Status of Smallholders
17.4 Challenges before Smallholders
17.5 Necessity of Integrated Farming System
17.6 Integrated Farming System Model/Modules
17.6.1 Model/Modules for Small-Scale Farming
17.6.2 Models/Modules for Dryland Farming Systems
17.6.3 Model/Modules for Landless Farmers
17.7 Added Advantages of IFS
17.7.1 Economic Contribution
17.8 Vertical Farming
17.9 Small Farm Mechanization
17.10 Resource Recycling
17.11 Employment Generation
17.12 Conclusion and Way Forward
References
18: Unlocking Potential of Dryland Horticulture in Climate-Resilient Farming
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Problems Associated with Dryland Farming
18.2.1 Soil
18.2.2 Water
18.2.3 Rainfall
18.2.4 Heat and Wind
18.2.5 Disease and Pest Infestations
18.3 Climate Change´s Impact on Growth and Development of Crops
18.4 Strategies for Resistance to Climate Change-Related Adversity Mitigation and Adaptation
18.5 The Biodiversity of the Hot Arid Zone
18.6 Criteria for Crop and Variety Selection
18.7 Principles of Dryland Farming Techniques
18.7.1 Prevent a Crust at the Soil Surface
18.7.2 Reducing the Moisture Loss from Soil
18.7.3 Reducing Transpiration
18.8 Climate-Resilient Technological Interventions
18.8.1 Summer Fallow
18.8.2 Bunding
18.8.3 Agro-horticulture (Intercropping)
18.8.4 Water Management
18.8.4.1 Water Shed Management
18.8.4.2 Rainwater Conservation and Harvesting
18.8.4.3 Improved Irrigation Systems and Micro-irrigation
18.8.5 Mulching
18.8.6 Use of Plant Growth Regulators and Chemicals
18.8.7 Plant Architecture and Canopy Management
18.8.8 Integrated Nutrient Management
18.8.9 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Strategies
18.8.10 Precision Farming
18.8.11 Post-harvest Management
18.9 Prospects of Dryland Horticulture
18.10 Innovation in Technology Transfer
18.11 Opportunities in Arid Horticulture to Combat the Negative Impact of Climate Change
18.12 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Crop Improvement and Pest Management
19: Genetically Modified Crops and Crop Species Adapted to Global Warming in Dry Regions
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Genetically Modified Crops in Dry Regions
19.3 Techniques for GMO Development
19.3.1 Transgenesis
19.3.2 Cisgenesis
19.3.3 Intragenesis
19.3.4 Genome Editing
19.4 Safety Assessment of GMOs
19.5 GMO Regulation and Legislations
19.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
20: Weed Management in Dryland Agriculture
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Attributes of Dryland Weeds
20.3 Factors Affecting Weed Emergence in Dryland Areas
20.3.1 Climatic Factors
20.3.2 Edaphic Factors
20.3.3 Biotic Factors
20.4 Critical Period of Crop-Weed Competition
20.5 Weed Shift Vulnerability in Drylands
20.6 Economic Losses Caused by Weeds in India and Other Countries
20.7 Dryland Weed Management Strategies
20.7.1 Preventive Methods
20.7.2 Cultural Methods
20.7.3 Thermal Methods
20.7.4 Soil Solarization
20.7.5 Weed Flaming
20.7.6 Weed Steaming
20.7.7 Mechanical Methods
20.7.8 Chemical Methods
20.7.9 Biological Methods
20.7.10 Biotechnological Methods
20.7.11 Herbicide-Resistant Crops
20.7.12 Bio-Herbicides
20.7.13 Allelopathy
20.7.14 Development of Transgenic Allelopathy in Crops
20.7.15 Characterization of Weeds Using Molecular Systematics
20.7.16 Improved Resource Conservation Technologies
20.7.16.1 Conservation Agriculture (CA)
20.7.16.2 Bed Planting
20.7.16.3 Crop Diversification
20.7.16.4 Brown Manuring
20.7.16.5 Sub-Surface Drip Irrigation
20.7.16.6 Precision Weed Management
20.7.16.7 Agricultural Robotics for Weed Management
20.7.16.8 Integrated Weed Management
20.8 Conclusion
References
21: Insect and Pest Management for Sustaining Crop Production Under Changing Climatic Patterns of Drylands
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Effects of Climate Change in Drylands
21.2.1 Insect Pest Biology
21.2.2 Pest Status
21.2.3 Invasive Insect Species
21.3 Impact on Pest Management Strategies
21.3.1 Chemical Control
21.3.2 Cultural and Physical Control
21.3.3 Host Plant Resistance
21.3.4 Biological Control
21.4 Conclusions
References
22: Potential Effects of Future Climate Changes in Pest Scenario
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Effect of Elevated Temperature on Pest Dynamics
22.2.1 Increase in Geographical Range
22.2.2 Increase in the Number of Generations of Insect Pest
22.2.3 Overwintering Survival
22.2.4 Impact on Biocontrol Agents
22.2.5 Impact on Invasive Species
22.3 Effect of Precipitation on Insect Pests
22.4 Effect of Elevated CO2 Concentrations on Insect Pests
22.5 Pest Management Under Climate Change Scenario
22.6 Conclusions
References
23: Impact of Climate Change on Plant Viral Diseases
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Effect of Elevated CO2 on Host, Vector and Virus
23.2.1 Elevated CO2 Impacts on Bell Pepper Growth with Consequences to Myzus persicae Life History, Feeding Behaviour and Viru...
23.3 Temperature
23.3.1 High Temperature Activates Local Viral Multiplication and Cell-to-Cell Movement of Melon Necrotic Spot Virus (MNSV) but...
23.3.2 Effect of Elevated CO2 and Temperature on Pathogenicity Determinants and Virulence of Potato Virus X (PVX)/Potyvirus-As...
23.4 Rainfall
23.4.1 Water Stress Modulates Soybean Aphid Performance, Feeding Behaviour and Virus Transmission in Soybean
23.4.2 Drought Reduces Transmission of Turnip Yellows Virus, an Insect-Vectored Circulative Virus
23.4.3 Epidemiology of ChiLCVD on Syngenta 5531 Chilli Hybrid
23.4.4 Pigeon pea Sterility Mosaic Disease
23.5 Conclusions
References
24: Adaptation Strategies for Protected Cultivation Under Changing Climate Patterns in Dry Regions
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Need for Adaptation Strategies Under Protected Cultivation in Dry Regions
24.2.1 Impacts of Climate Change
24.2.1.1 Increase in Atmospheric CO2
24.2.1.2 Increase in Air Temperature
24.2.1.3 Change in Rainfall
24.2.1.4 Instability in Yields of High-Quality Products
24.2.1.5 The Impacts of Elevated Temperatures on Pests and Diseases
24.3 Different Adaptations Strategies for Protected Cultivation to Reduce the Climate Change Effect in Dry Regions
24.3.1 To Combat Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Emissions Must Be Increased
24.3.2 To Reduce Water Scarcity, Water Consumption Must Be Reduced and Water Usage Efficiency Must Be Increased
24.3.2.1 Screenhouses
24.3.2.2 Semi-/Closed Greenhouses
24.3.3 For Winter Production, Increased Usage and Improvement of Natural and Extra Light
24.3.4 Heat Waves and Required Cooling
24.3.4.1 Cooling and Ventilation by Screens
24.3.4.2 Cooling in Passively Ventilated Greenhouses
24.3.4.3 Air Velocity and Ventilation Rate Are the Main Features to Efficient Passive Cooling
24.3.4.4 Semi-closed Greenhouse Cooling and Efficient Use of CO2
24.3.5 Plant Protection in a Changing Climate
24.3.6 Breeding
24.3.7 Ensuring Continuous Market Supply Under Climate Change
24.3.8 Other Adaptation Possibilities
24.4 Constraints in Adaptive Strategies in Protected Cultivation Under Climate Change (CC) in Dry Region
24.4.1 Climate Change Impacts
24.4.1.1 Impacts of Climate Change on Crop Production in Protected Environments
24.4.1.2 The Impacts of Increasing Atmospheric CO2
24.4.1.3 The Impacts of Changing Precipitation Patterns
24.4.1.4 The Impacts of High Summer Temperatures
24.4.1.5 The Impacts of Elevated Temperatures on Pests and Diseases
24.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
25: Organic Farming: Prospects and Challenges in Drylands
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Benefits of Organic Farming
25.2.1 Improvement in Soil Quality
25.2.2 Nutritional Benefits and Health Safety
25.2.3 Socioeconomic Impact
25.3 Specific Benefits of Organic Farming for the Drylands of India
25.4 Challenges for Organic Agriculture
25.5 Strategies for Promoting Organic Farming in Drylands
25.5.1 Popularize Organic Farming Without the Compulsion of Certification
25.5.2 Promote Ley Farming
25.5.3 Integrate Efforts of Supporting Agencies
25.5.4 Encourage Decentralized Input Supply
25.5.5 Adopt Improved Methods of Composting
25.5.6 Increase Public Awareness and Build Capacity
25.5.7 Subsidize Organic Inputs and Produce
25.5.8 Promote High-Value Crops
25.5.9 Develop Organic Farming Clusters of Villages
25.5.10 Develop Certification Programs and Marketing Chains
25.6 Organic Farming for the Drylands of India: Ecological Sustainability
25.7 Main Principles of Organic Farming
25.8 Future Prospectus of Organic Farming
25.9 Organic Agriculture and Sustainable Development
25.10 Social Sustainability
25.11 Importance of Dryland Farming
25.11.1 Characteristics of Dryland Agriculture in India
25.12 Problems of Dryland Farming
25.13 Conclusions
References
26: Biochemical and Molecular Aspects for Plant Improvement Under Climate Stress
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Climate Change and Food Security: A Global Scenario
26.3 Crop Response Towards Climate-Driven Environmental Stresses
26.3.1 Morphological Response to Abiotic Stress
26.3.2 Cellular Response to Abiotic Stress
26.3.3 Photosynthetic Machinery Modulation and Gaseous Exchange
26.3.4 Osmotic Adjustment and Osmoprotectants
26.3.5 Oxidative Damage and ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) Regulation
26.4 Plant Molecular Chaperones
26.4.1 Classification of HSPs
26.4.1.1 HSP100 Family
26.4.1.2 HSP90 Family
26.4.1.3 HSP70 Family
26.4.1.4 HSP60 Family
26.4.1.5 HSP40 Family
26.4.1.6 sHSP Family
26.5 Molecular Breeding Methods
26.5.1 QTLs for Drought Stress Tolerance
26.5.1.1 Wheat
26.5.1.2 Rice
26.5.1.3 Sorghum
26.5.1.4 Barley
26.5.1.5 Cotton
26.5.1.6 Common Bean
26.5.2 QTLs for High-Temperature Stress Tolerance
26.5.2.1 Wheat
26.5.2.2 Rice
26.5.3 QTLs for Low-Temperature Stress Tolerance
26.5.3.1 Rice
26.5.3.2 Maize
26.5.3.3 Barley
26.5.4 QTLs for Salinity Stress Tolerance
26.5.4.1 Wheat
26.5.4.2 Rice
26.5.5 QTLs for Water Lodging Stress Tolerance
26.5.6 QTLs for Water Submergence Stress Tolerance
26.6 Omics Techniques for Crop Improvement
26.6.1 Transcriptomics
26.6.2 Proteomics
26.6.3 Metabolomics
26.7 QTL Analysis-Based Breeding with Advanced Backcross (AB-Breeding)
26.8 Genomics-Assisted Breeding (GAB)
26.9 Next-Generation GAB Approaches
26.9.1 Genomic Selection (GS)
26.9.2 Genome Editing
26.10 Phenomics and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
26.11 Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) and Association Mapping (AM)
26.11.1 Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS)
26.11.1.1 Rice
26.11.1.2 Upland Cotton
26.11.1.3 Wheat
26.11.1.4 Maize
26.11.2 Association Mapping (AM)
26.12 Future Perspectives of Crop Improvement for Stress Combination and Conclusion
References
Part V: Livestock Production and Management
27: Understanding Linkages Between Livestock Sensitivity and Climate Variability in Drylands for Developing Appropriate Manage...
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Dryland Livestock and Government Schemes
27.3 Impact of Climate Change on Dryland Livestock
27.4 Species: Wise Impact of Climate Change
27.5 Strategies for Dryland Livestock Development vis-à-vis Changing Climates
27.5.1 Livestock Breeding
27.5.2 Livestock Production and Management
27.5.3 Climate Change Mitigation Through Improved Husbandry Practices
27.5.4 Participatory Approach
27.6 Conclusions
References
28: Grass-Legume Intercropping for Enhancing Quality Fodder Production in Drylands
28.1 Introduction
28.2 The Concept of Intercropping and Its Mechanisms
28.2.1 Types of Intercropping
28.2.1.1 Mixed Intercropping
28.2.1.2 Row Intercropping
28.2.1.3 Strip Intercropping
28.2.1.4 Relay Cropping
28.2.2 Crop Combinations in Intercropping
28.2.3 The Need for Intercropping of Grasses and Legumes
28.3 Advantages of Grass-Legume Intercropping
28.3.1 Yield Advantage
28.3.2 Fodder Quality
28.3.3 Suppresses Weeds
28.3.4 Improved Use of Resources
28.4 Limitations of Grass-Legume Intercropping
28.5 Conclusion
References
Part VI: Improving Livelihood and Socio-Economic Status of Dryland Farmers
29: Economic Analysis of Sustainable Dryland Agriculture Practices
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Dryland Farming Techniques
29.2.1 Increase Water Absorption
29.2.2 Reduce the Run-Off of Water
29.2.3 Reducing Soil Evaporation
29.2.4 Reducing Transpiration
29.3 Agricultural Economists Can Improve the Quality and Comprehensiveness of Agricultural Systems Research in Six Areas
29.4 Budgeting and Investment Analysis
29.5 Methodology
29.6 Conclusions
29.7 Recommendations
References
30: Adoption of Sustainable Dryland Technologies for Improving Livelihood of Farmers in Developing Countries
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Importance of Dryland Agriculture in Ensuring Livelihood
30.2.1 Helps in Ensuring the Nutritional Security
30.2.2 Dryland Farming Helps in Reduction of Desertification Process
30.2.3 Source of Livelihood for Large Chunk of Population
30.2.4 Dryland Offers Good Source of Development
30.2.5 Dryland Agriculture Is Key to Food Security
30.3 Constraints of Dryland Agriculture
30.3.1 Prevalence of Heat and Wind
30.3.2 Soil and Moisture Problems
30.3.3 Environmental Changes of Waterlogging and Salinity
30.3.4 Dietary Habits and Nutritional Characteristics of Crops Grown
30.3.5 Limited and Uneven Distribution of Rainfall
30.3.6 Large-Scale Prevalence of Monocropping
30.3.7 Poor Fertility Status in Marginal Lands and Low Productivity
30.3.8 Socioeconomic Constraints of the Dryland Farmers
30.4 Soil and Water Management Techniques
30.4.1 Summer Ploughing
30.4.2 Ridges and Furrows
30.4.3 Contour Farming
30.4.4 Ploughing Across the Slope
30.4.5 Vegetative Barriers
30.4.6 Intercropping
30.4.7 Strip Cropping
30.4.8 Mulching
30.4.9 Alternate Land Use Pattern
30.4.10 Broad Beds and Furrows
30.4.11 Contour Bunding
30.4.12 Contour Trenches
30.4.13 Compartmental Bunding
30.4.14 Random Tied Ridging
30.4.15 Basin Listing
30.4.16 Microcatchment
30.4.17 Percolation Ponds
30.4.18 Check Dams
30.5 Crop Production Technologies for Dryland Areas
30.5.1 Crop Management Practices
30.5.2 Soil Management
30.5.3 Use of Mulches
30.5.4 Use of Anti-transpirants
30.6 Dry Spells Immediately After Sowing
30.7 Break in Monsoon, Mid-season or Late
30.8 Techniques to Reduce Evapotranspiration Loss and Improve Water Use Efficiency
30.8.1 Mulching
30.8.2 Soil Fertility Management
30.8.3 Genetic Improvement of Crops
30.8.4 Seeding Rate and Planting Pattern
30.8.5 Planting Calendar
30.8.6 Water Management
30.8.7 Weed Management
30.9 Factors Affecting Adoption of Improved Farm Technologies
30.9.1 Socioeconomic Factors
30.9.2 Variation in Climatic Conditions
30.9.2.1 Accessibility to Farm Technologies
30.9.2.2 Marketing Linkages
30.9.2.3 Institutional Support
30.10 Adoption of Sustainable Dryland Technologies: Successful Case Studies from Developing Countries of the World
30.11 Conclusion
References
31: Challenges and Prospects in Managing Dryland Agriculture Under Climate Change Scenario
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Impact of Climate Changes on Dryland Agriculture
31.3 Challenges in Dryland Agriculture
31.3.1 Inadequate and Uneven Distribution of Rainfall
31.3.2 Late-Onset and Early Cessation of Rains
31.3.3 Drought
31.3.4 Prolonged Dry Spells during the Crop Period
31.3.5 Low Moisture Retention Capacity
31.3.6 Low Fertility of Soils
31.4 Strategies to Mitigate the Effects of Climate Change on Dryland Agriculture
31.5 Future Perspectives
31.6 Conclusion
References
32: Adaptive Resilience: Sustaining Dryland Agriculture the Pastoralist Way
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Pastoralism in Drylands
32.3 Pastoral Resilience
32.3.1 Mobility
32.3.2 Diversity
32.3.3 Flexibility
32.3.4 Reciprocity
32.4 Impact of Climate Change in Drylands
32.4.1 Variability in Climatic Patterns
32.4.2 Variability in Vegetation
32.4.3 Variability in Soil Carbon Content
32.5 Pastoralism Vis-à-Vis Climate Change
32.6 Strengthening Pastoral Resilience
32.6.1 Short-Term Adaptation Strategies
32.6.1.1 Insurance Products
32.6.1.2 Early Warning Systems
32.6.1.3 Customized Credit Availability
32.6.2 Long-Term Adaptation Strategies
32.6.2.1 Availability of Basic Infrastructure and Services
32.6.2.2 Acknowledging Ecological Contribution
32.6.2.3 Governance and Land Tenure Rights
32.6.2.4 Regional Dimensions of Pastoralism
32.7 Conclusions
References
Part VII: Farm Mechanization in Dryland Agriculture
33: Resource Conserving Mechanization Technologies for Dryland Agriculture
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Resource Conserving Technologies for Tillage, Seed Bed Preparation, and Sowing Operations
33.2.1 Chisel Plough
33.2.2 Subsoiler
33.2.3 Blade Harrow
33.2.4 Laser Land Leveller
33.2.5 Duck Foot/Sweep Cultivator
33.2.6 Mulcher
33.2.7 Strip-Till Drill
33.2.8 Turbo Happy Seeder
33.2.9 Seeder/Planter Cum Herbicide Applicator
33.2.10 Pneumatic Precision Planter
33.2.11 Multi-Crop Raised Bed Planter/Broad Bed Furrow (BBF) Planter
33.3 Resource Conserving Technologies in Fertilizer and Chemical Applications
33.3.1 Ultrasonic Orchard Sprayer
33.3.2 Electrostatic Sprayer
33.3.3 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)/Drones
33.3.4 Tractor-Operated High Clearance Boom Sprayer
33.4 Water-Conserving Technologies
33.4.1 Drip Irrigation System
33.4.2 Subsurface Drip Irrigation System
33.4.3 Sprinkler Irrigation System
33.4.4 Plastic Mulch Laying Machine
33.4.5 Conservation Agriculture
33.5 Effective Technologies for Mechanical Control of Weeds
33.5.1 Narrow Tyne/Interrow Cultivator/Interrow Weeder
33.5.2 Spring Tyne Harrow
33.5.3 Intra-Row Weeder
33.5.4 Self-Propelled Power Weeder
33.6 Resource Conserving Technologies for Harvesting and Threshing Operations
33.6.1 Self-Propelled Reaper
33.6.2 Cotton Stalk Shredder
33.6.3 Multi-Crop Thresher
33.7 Conclusion
References
34: Agricultural Mechanization for Efficient Utilization of Input Resources to Improve Crop Production in Arid Region
34.1 Introduction
34.1.1 An Overview of Agricultural Mechanization
34.1.2 Status and Scope of Agricultural Mechanization in the Arid Region
34.1.3 Rajasthan Government´s Initiatives for Farm Mechanization
34.2 Farm Mechanization in the Arid Region
34.2.1 Tillage
34.2.2 Sowing/Transplanting
34.2.3 Weeding and Intercultural Operations
34.2.4 Irrigation
34.2.5 Plant Protection Operations
34.2.6 Harvesting and Threshing
34.3 Socio-Economic Aspect of Farm Mechanization
34.3.1 Drudgery Involved in the Farm Operation
34.3.2 Cost-Economics of Agricultural Machineries
34.4 Future Mechanization Pathway through IoT-Based Technologies
34.4.1 Mechatronics
34.4.2 Precision Agriculture
34.4.3 Robotics in Agricultural Work
34.4.4 Use of Internet of Things in Agricultural Implements
34.4.5 Artificial Intelligence
34.5 Conclusions
References