English for Writing Research Papers

Introduction
Who is this book for?
How is this book organized? How should I read it?
What is different from the previous editions of this book?
Contents
Part I: Writing Skills
Chapter 1: Planning and Preparation
1.1 Why should I publish? How do I know whether my research is worth publishing?
1.2 Should I write the initial draft in my own language rather than writing it directly in English?
1.3 Which journal should I choose?
1.4 How do I know what style and structure to use?
1.5 What preparation do I need to do?
1.6 How can I create a template?
1.7 Writing style: how do I keep the referees happy?
1.8 In what order should I write the various sections?
1.9 How can I highlight my key findings?
1.10 How can I improve the chances of my paper not only being published, but also being read, understood and cited?
1.11 I know that the recommendations in this book about writing simply and clearly will improve the readability of my paper, but my professor …
1.12 Summary
Chapter 2: Word order and sentence length
2.1 Basic word order in English: subject + verb + object + indirect object
2.2 Place the subject before the verb
2.3 Keep the subject and verb close to each other
2.4 Avoid inserting parenthetical information between the subject and the verb
2.5 Don’t separate the verb from its direct object
2.6 Put the direct object before the indirect object
2.7 Don’t use a pronoun (it, they) before you introduce the noun that the pronoun refers to
2.8 Locate not before the main verb, but after auxiliary and modal verbs
2.9 Locate negations near the beginning of the sentence
2.10 Deciding where to locate an adverb
2.11 Put adjectives before the noun they describe
2.12 Deciding where to put new and old information within a sentence
2.13 Analyse why and how long sentences are created
2.14 Learn how to break up a long sentence
2.15 Summary
Chapter 3: Structuring Paragraphs
3.1 Elegance vs Effectiveness
3.2 Choose the most relevant subject to put it at the beginning of a sentence that opens a new paragraph
3.3 First paragraph of a new section – begin with a mini summary plus an indication of the structure
3.4 Deciding where to put new and old information within a paragraph
3.5 Link each sentence by moving from general concepts to increasingly more specific concepts
3.6 Present and explain ideas in the same (logical) sequence
3.7 Break up long paragraphs
3.8 How to structure a paragraph: an example
3.9 Summary
Chapter 4: Being Concise and Removing Redundancy
4.1 Being concise is not just an option
4.2 Write less and you will make fewer mistakes in English, and your key points will be clearer
4.3 Cut any unnecessary generic words
4.4 Consider deleting abstract words and phrases
4.5 Prefer verbs to nouns
4.6 Choose the shortest expressions
4.7 Cut redundant adjectives
4.8 Cut pointless introductory phrases and unnecessary link words
4.9 Be concise when referring to figures and tables
4.10 Consider reducing the length of your paper
4.11 Summary
Chapter 5: Avoiding ambiguity, repetition, and vague language
5.1 Use a simple and accessible style
5.2 Beware that pronouns are probably the greatest source of ambiguity
5.3 Avoid replacing key words with synonyms and clarify ambiguity introduced by generic words
5.4 Restrict the use of synonyms to non-key words
5.5 Be as precise as possible
5.6 Choose the least generic word
5.7 Use punctuation to show how words and concepts are related to each other
5.8 Defining vs non defining clauses: that vs which / who
5.9 Clarifying which noun you are referring to when which, that, who and the -ing form
5.10 -ing form vs. subject + verb
5.11 Avoiding ambiguity with the -ing form: use by and thus
5.12 Uncountable nouns
5.13 Definite and indefinite articles
5.14 Referring backwards: the dangers of the former, the latter
5.15 Referring backwards and forwards: the dangers of above, below, previously, earlier, later
5.16 Use of respectively to disambiguate
5.17 Distinguishing between both … and, and either … or
5.18 Talking about similarities: as, like, unlike
5.19 Differentiating between from and by
5.20 Be careful with Latin words
5.21 False friends
5.22 Be careful of typos
5.23 Summary
Chapter 6: Clarifying and Highlighting
6.1 Why is it so important highlight and differentiate my findings in relation to the findings of other research groups?
6.2 Check your journal’s style – first person or passive
6.3 How to form the passive and when to use it
6.4 Use the active form when the passive might be ambiguous
6.5 Consider starting a new paragraph to distinguish between your work and the literature
6.6 Ensure you use the right tenses to differentiate your work from others, particularly when your journal prohibits the use of we
6.7 For journals that allow personal forms, use we to distinguish yourself from other authors
6.8 Make good use of references
6.9 Avoid long blocks of text
6.10 When you have something really important to say, make your sentences shorter than normal
6.11 Other means of attracting the reader’s eye and keeping their attention
6.12 Show your paper to a non-expert and get them to underline your key findings
6.13 Summary
Chapter 7: Discussing your limitations
7.1 What are my limitations? Should I mention them?
7.2 Recognize the importance of ‘bad data’
7.3 How to avoid losing credibility
7.4 Be constructive in how you present your limitations
7.5 Clarify exactly what your limitations are
7.6 Anticipate alternative interpretations of your data
7.7 Refer to other authors who experienced similar problems
7.8 Tell the reader that with the current state-of-the-art this problem is not solvable
7.9 Explain why you did not study certain data
7.10 Don’t end your paper by talking about your limitations
7.11 Summary
Chapter 8: Readability
8.1 You are responsible for enabling your readers to understand what you have written
8.2 Basic rules of readability
8.3 Place the various elements in your sentence in the most logical order possible: don’t force the reader to have to change their perspective
8.4 Don’t force readers to hold a lot of preliminary information in their head before giving them the main information
8.5 Try to be as concrete as possible as soon as possible
8.6 When drawing the reader’s attention to something use the least number of words possible
8.7 State your aim before giving the reasons for it
8.8 Be as specific as possible
8.9 Avoid creating strings of nouns that describe other nouns
8.10 Be careful how you use personal pronouns and avoid stereotyping
8.11 Summary
Chapter 9: Chatbots
9.1 What are the key things I need to know about chatbots?
9.2 What prompts (instructions) can I use to get a chatbot to fulfill my request?
9.3 How can I see the changes that the bot has made? What can I learn from the list of changes generated?
9.4 What good corrections do chatbots make?
9.5 What can’t GPT do? Is it a good idea to pre-edit my original text that I wrote in English?
9.6 What kinds of grammar mistakes does a bot currently fail to correct?
9.7 What kinds of errors will a bot probably never be able to correct?
9.8 What the most dangerous errors that chatbots make when revising a text in English?
9.9 What are the dangers of modifying the chatbot’s version? Is there a solution?
9.10 What decisions do I need to make before rejecting a change made by GPT?
9.11 Will a chatbot negatively affect my writing style?
9.12 How can I assess whether the bot’s version is actually better than my original version?
9.13 Using AI to generate a rebuttal letter and other types of email
9.14 When not to use a bot to generate / correct an email
9.15 How easy is it to tell that a text has been generated by artificial intelligence?
9.16 Is using a chatbot an act of plagiarism?
9.17 Summary
Chapter 10: Automatic translation
10.1 How does this chapter differ from the chapter on translation in the companion volume on Grammar, Usage and Style?
10.2 Should I use machine translation? Which application?
10.3 Pre-editing: how to improve the chances of getting an accurate automatic translation
10.4 Grammar and vocabulary areas where MT may be more accurate than you
10.5 Typical areas where automatic translators may make mistakes in English if your language is not a major language
10.6 Areas where machine translation will not help you even if your language is a major language
10.7 The dangers of using machine translation
10.8 How can I combine my use of machine translation with a chatbot?
10.9 Will I still improve my level of English if I use machine translators and chatbots?
10.10 Do NOT use an automatic translator to check your English
10.11 A note for EAP teachers
10.12 Summary
Part II: Sections of a Paper
Chapter 11: Titles
11.1 How important is my title?
11.2 How can I generate a title?
11.3 Should I try to include some verbs in my title?
11.4 How will prepositions help to make my title clearer?
11.5 Are articles (a / an, the) necessary?
11.6 Will adjectives such as innovative and novel attract attention?
11.7 What other criteria should I use to decide whether to include certain words or not?
11.8 How should I punctuate my title? What words should I capitalize?
11.9 How can I make my title shorter?
11.10 How can I make my title sound more dynamic?
11.11 Can I use my title to make a claim?
11.12 Are questions in titles a good way to attract attention?
11.13 When is a two-part title a good idea?
11.14 How should I write a title for a conference?
11.15 What is a running title?
11.16 Is using an automatic spell check enough?
11.17 Using a chatbot to generate or improve your title
11.18 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my title?
Chapter 12: Abstracts: Standard types
12.1 What is an abstract? When should I write it?
12.2 How important is the Abstract?
12.3 Where is the Abstract located? What are ‘highlights’?
12.4 How should I select my key words?
12.5 What is a structured abstract?
12.6 What style should I use: personal or impersonal?
12.7 How should I begin my Abstract?
12.8 How much background information should I give?
12.9 What tenses should I use?
12.10 Why and how should I be concise?
12.11 What should I not mention in my Abstract?
12.12 How can I ensure that my Abstract has maximum impact?
12.13 How can chatbots help me improve my Abstract?
12.14 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Abstract?
Chapter 13: Abstracts: Particular types
13.1 I have never written an Abstract before. I don’t know where to start. Could I chatbot help me?
13.2 Social and behavioral sciences. How should I structure my abstract? How much background information?
13.3 I am a historian. We don’t necessarily get ‘results’ or follow a specific methodology. What should I do?
13.4 I am writing an abstract for a presentation at a conference. What do I need to be aware of?
13.5 How do I write an abstract for a work in progress that will be presented at a conference?
13.6 What is an Extended Abstract?
13.7 What is a video abstract? How can I make one?
13.8 My aim is to have my paper published in Nature. Is a Nature abstract different from abstracts in other journals?
13.9 I know I need to end my Abstract with a view of the big picture. How can I use a chatbot to suggest to me what the implications of my research are?
13.10 How do journal editors and conference review committees assess the abstracts that they receive?
13.11 Summary
Chapter 14: Introduction
14.1 What is an Introduction?
14.2 How should I structure it? How long should it be?
14.3 How does an Introduction differ from an Abstract?
14.4 How should I begin my Introduction?
14.5 How should I structure the rest of the Introduction?
14.6 What tenses should I use?
14.7 How long should the paragraphs be?
14.8 How should I outline the structure of the rest of my paper?
14.9 My research area is not a ‘hard’ science. Are there any other ways of beginning an Introduction?
14.10 Can a chatbot help me to write my Introduction?
14.11 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Introduction?
Chapter 15: Writing a Review of the Literature
15.1 I need to write a Review Paper. How should I structure my Abstract? What are my aims and conclusions?
15.2 How should I structure my review of the literature in my Introduction to my paper?
15.3 How should I begin my literature review? How can I structure it to show the progress through the years?
15.4 What is the clearest way to refer to other authors? Should I focus on the authors or their ideas?
15.5 How can I talk about the limitations of previous work and the novelty of my work in a constructive and diplomatic way?
15.6 How can I reduce the amount I write when reporting the literature?
15.7 In my review I need mention what other authors have written. How should I do this?
15.8 How can I quote directly from other papers?
15.9 How can I use a bot to help me paraphrase?
15.10 How to quote from another paper by paraphrasing
15.11 Paraphrasing: a simple example
15.12 Paraphrasing: how it can help you write correct English
15.13 What are some more quick tips for writing a review paper?
15.14 How should I conclude a Review Paper?
15.15 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Literature Review?
Chapter 16: Methods
16.1 What is a Method’s section?
16.2 Are there any ways that a chatbot could help me with my Methods section?
16.3 How should I structure the Methods?
16.4 What style: should I use the active or passive? What tenses should I use?
16.5 How should I begin the Methods?
16.6 My methods use a standard / previous procedure. Do I need to describe the methods in detail?
16.7 Should I describe everything in chronological order?
16.8 How many actions / steps can I refer to in a single sentence?
16.9 How can I reduce the number of words but avoid my Methods appearing like a series of lists?
16.10 What potential errors of grammar and syntax do I need to be careful of?
16.11 What other points should I include in the Methods? How should I end the Methods?
16.12 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Methods section?
Chapter 17: Results
17.1 What is a Results section?
17.2 How should I structure the Results?
17.3 How should I begin the Results?
17.4 What tenses and style should I use when reporting my Results?
17.5 Should I report any negative results?
17.6 How can I show my readers the value of my data, rather than just telling them?
17.7 How should I comment on my tables and figures?
17.8 What more do I need to know about commenting on tables?
17.9 How can I use a chatbot to help me write the Results section?
17.10 What about legends and captions?
17.11 My research was based on various surveys and interviews. How should I report quotations from the people we interviewed?
17.12 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Results section?
Chapter 18: Discussion
18.1 What is a Discussion?
18.2 How should I structure the Discussion?
18.3 Active or passive? What kind of writing style should I use?
18.4 How should I begin the Discussion?
18.5 Why and how should I compare my work with that of others?
18.6 How can I give my interpretation of my data while taking into account other possible interpretations that I do not agree with?
18.7 How can I use seems and appears to admit that I have not investigated all possible cases?
18.8 What about the literature that does not support my findings - should I mention it?
18.9 How can I show the pitfalls of other works in the literature?
18.10 Should I discuss the limitations of my research?
18.11 How can I be more concise?
18.12 How can I use a chatbot to help me with my Discussion?
18.13 What are the dangers of using a chatbot to help me write my Discussion?
18.14 How long should the paragraphs be?
18.15 How should I end the Discussion if I have a Conclusions section?
18.16 How should I end the Discussion if I do not have a Conclusions section?
18.17 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Discussion?
Chapter 19: Conclusions
19.1 What is the purpose of the Conclusions section?
19.2 What tenses should I use?
19.3 I have no idea how to write a Conclusions section. Is there a quick way that a chatbot could help me?
19.4 How should I structure the Conclusions?
19.5 How can I differentiate my Conclusions from my Abstract?
19.6 How can I differentiate my Conclusions from my Introduction and from the last paragraph of my Discussion?
19.7 How can I increase the impact of the first sentence of my Conclusions?
19.8 I don’t have any clear Conclusions, what can I do? Should I mention my limitations?
19.9 How can I end my Conclusions?
19.10 To be honest, I don’t really know what the implications of my research are or what possible avenues for future research there are. How could a chatbot help me?
19.11 How should I write the Acknowledgements?
19.12 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Conclusions?
Chapter 20: The Final Check
20.1 How good is my paper?
20.2 Use AI to check your paper, then print it out
20.3 Check your paper for readability
20.4 Always have the referee in mind
20.5 What to do if your paper is subject to a ‘blind’ review
20.6 Be careful with cut and pastes
20.7 Make sure everything is consistent
20.8 Check that your English is suitably formal
20.9 Don’t underestimate the importance of spelling mistakes
20.10 Write a good letter / email to accompany your manuscript
20.11 Keep an open mind and deal with rejections in a positive way
20.12 Take the editor’s and reviewers’ comments seriously
20.13 A final word from the author: Let’s put a bit of fun into scientific writing!
20.14 Summary of this chapter
20.15 Summary of the entire book: 10 key concepts
Additional information
Index