Engines and Fuels for Future Transport

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1 Introduction to Engines and Fuels for Future Transport
References
2 Sustainable Transportation
2.1 Setting the Scene
2.1.1 Brief History
2.1.2 Environmental Impact
2.1.3 Global Warming
2.2 Vehicle Efficiency Technologies
2.2.1 Internal Combustion Engine Powertrains
2.2.2 Electric Powertrains
2.3 The Way Forward
2.3.1 The Carbon Budget
2.3.2 Carbon Intensity and Life Cycle Analysis
2.3.3 A Global Solution to a Global Problem
2.3.4 One Size Doesn’t Fit All
2.3.5 Cause for Optimism
References
3 A Review of Emissions Control Technologies for On-Road Vehicles
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 After-Treatment Systems for Emissions Control: An Overview
3.1.2 Stoichiometric Gasoline Emissions After-Treatment
3.1.3 Gaseous Emissions Control
3.1.4 Particulate Emissions Control
3.2 Diesel Emission Control
3.2.1 Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC)
3.3 DeNOx Technologies: Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR), Lean NOx Trap (LNT), Passive NOx Adsorbers (PNA)
3.4 Emission Control Solutions for Heavy Duty Low NOx
3.5 Summary
References
4 Opposed-Piston Engine Potential: Low CO2 and Criteria Emissions
4.1 Opposed-Piston Engine Architecture
4.1.1 Architectural Overview
4.1.2 Efficiency Advantages
4.1.3 Emissions Advantages
4.1.4 Mechanical Design Considerations
4.2 Performance and Emissions Results
4.3 Alternate Fuels
4.4 Conclusion
References
5 An Overview of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Architecture
5.2.1 Series Configuration
5.2.2 Parallel Configuration
5.2.3 Series—Parallel Configuration
5.2.4 Plug-In HEV
5.3 Basic Components of Hybrid Vehicle
5.3.1 Primary Energy Source/Prime Mover
5.3.2 Electric and Electronic Machines
5.3.3 Energy Storage System (ESS)
5.3.4 Transmissions System
5.4 Energy Management Strategies (EMS) of HEVs
5.4.1 Rule-Based EMSs
5.4.2 Optimization-Based EMSs
5.4.3 ITS Based EMSs
5.5 Emissions Performance of HEVs
5.6 Critical Issues and Challenges for HEVs
5.7 Conclusions
References
6 Life-Cycle Analysis for the Automotive Sector
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Life-Cycle Analysis
6.2.1 Methods
6.2.2 Key Considerations for Life-Cycle Analysis
6.2.3 LCA Study Critical Review
6.2.4 A Short Word on Regulations
6.3 Summary and Recommendations
6.3.1 Recommendations for LCA Study Reviewers
6.3.2 A Final Thought
References
7 Pre-chamber Combustors: An Enabling Technology for High Efficiency, Low CO2 Engine Operation
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Dilute SI Combustion
7.1.2 History of Pre-chamber Combustion Systems
7.1.3 Jet Ignition
7.2 Fundamental Research
7.2.1 Optically Accessible Engine
7.2.2 Single Cylinder Engine
7.2.3 Geometry Sensitivity
7.2.4 Pre-chamber Scavenging
7.2.5 Auxiliary Fuel Injection
7.3 Applied Research
7.3.1 Multi-cylinder Jet Ignition Engine
7.3.2 Experimental Results
7.3.3 Overcoming the Low Load Challenge
7.4 Applications
7.5 Summary
References
8 A Pathway to Ultra-Lean IC Engine Combustion: The Narrow Throat Pre-chamber
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pre-chamber Design and Methodology
8.2.1 The Narrow-Throat Pre-chamber Design
8.2.2 Multi-chamber Heat Release Analysis
8.2.3 1-D GT-Power Simulation Setup
8.3 Pre-chamber Combustion
8.3.1 Gas/Mass Exchange—Mixture Formation Process Inside Pre-chamber
8.3.2 Pre-chamber Fuel Injection
8.3.3 Pre-chamber Mixture Dilution
8.3.4 Reactive Jet Expulsion into the Main Chamber
8.3.5 Pre-chamber Combustion Dynamics
8.4 Effect of Fuel Enrichment
8.4.1 Operating Conditions
8.4.2 Lean Limit Extension
8.4.3 Engine-Out Emissions and Efficiency
8.4.4 Heat Release Characteristics
8.4.5 Conclusions
8.5 Performance Assessment of PCC with Liquid Fuels
8.5.1 Operating Conditions
8.5.2 Enhanced Lean Limit
8.5.3 Excessive Knock Intensities
8.5.4 Emissions
8.5.5 Efficiency
8.5.6 Conclusion
8.6 Summary
References
9 On the Use of Active Pre-chambers and Bio-hybrid Fuels in Internal Combustion Engines
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pre-chamber Design and Fuel Candidates
9.2.1 Pre-chamber Layout
9.2.2 Fuels
9.3 Methodology and Results
9.3.1 Rapid Compression Machine
9.3.2 Thermodynamic Single-Cylinder Engine
9.3.3 Numerical Simulation
9.4 Ongoing Pre-chamber Investigations
9.4.1 Optical Single-Cylinder Engine
9.4.2 Optical Generic Pre-chamber Experiments
9.4.3 The Importance of Fuel Properties: Towards Co-optimization of Bio-hybrid Fuels and Engines for Ultra-high Efficiency
References
10 The Use of Ammonia as a Fuel for Combustion Engines
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Ammonia
10.3 Advantages and Challenges of Ammonia as Engine Fuel
10.4 Ammonia Combustion Kinetics and Characteristics
10.5 Combustion Engines Fueled with Ammonia
10.5.1 History of Ammonia as Power
10.5.2 Engines Fueled with Ammonia
10.5.3 Dual-Fuel Engines Fueled with Ammonia and Carbon-Based Fuels
10.5.4 Dual-Fuel Engines Fueled with Ammonia and Hydrogen
10.6 Conclusions and Prospects
References
11 Ammonia as Fuel for Transportation to Mitigate Zero Carbon Impact
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 A Bit of History of Ammonia Fuel
11.1.2 Ammonia Properties and Specificities
11.2 Ammonia SI Engine
11.2.1 Gasoline/Ammonia Blend
11.2.2 Methane/Ammonia Blend
11.2.3 Ammonia Helped or Not by Hydrogen
11.3 Ammonia CI Engine
11.3.1 100% Ammonia
11.3.2 Ammonia Helped by Diesel Pilot Injection
11.3.3 Ammonia and Other Fuels
11.4 Ammonia for HCCI Engine
11.5 Emissions Trends for Ammonia Engine
11.5.1 General Considerations
11.5.2 Exhaust Emissions in Ammonia ICE Engines
11.5.3 NOx/NH3 Trade-Off Solution for Ammonia ICE Engines
11.6 Conclusion and Future
References
12 Methanol as a Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines
12.1 Background
12.2 Acquisition of Methanol
12.2.1 Development of Methanol Production
12.2.2 Process of Methanol Synthesis
12.3 Methanol Applications in Internal Combustion Engine
12.3.1 History of Methanol Engines
12.3.2 Classification of Methanol Engines
12.4 Characteristics of Different Methanol Engines
12.4.1 Engine Fueled with Pure Methanol
12.4.2 Engine Fueled with Traditional Fuels and Methanol
12.4.3 Engine Fueled with Alternative Fuels and Methanol
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Technologies for Knock Mitigation in SI Engines—A Review
13.1 Knocking Phenomenon and Limitations in Spark Ignition Engines Optimization
13.2 Engine Control Strategies to Reduce Knocking
13.2.1 Retarding Spark Timing
13.2.2 Enriching the Mixture
13.3 Combustion Chamber Geometry Optimization
13.4 Enhanced Engine Cooling
13.4.1 Dual Cooling System
13.4.2 Evaporative Cooling System
13.4.3 Precision Cooling System
13.4.4 Piston Cooling
13.4.5 Increased Heat Transfer at Exhaust Valve
13.4.6 Nano-fluids
13.5 Water Injection
13.6 Cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation
13.7 Use of Anti-knock Fuels
13.8 Conclusions
References
14 Explicit Equations for Designing Surrogate Gasoline Formulations Containing Toluene, n-Heptane and Iso-pentane
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Properties of Isopentane-Containing Surrogates
14.3 Defining Surrogate Compositions
14.4 Conclusions
References
15 Prediction of Ignition Modes in Shock Tubes Relevant to Engine Conditions
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Theoretical Background
15.2.1 Ignition Regime Criterion
15.2.2 Prediction of Ignition Regimes in Turbulent Conditions
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.3.1 Description of Selected Mixtures
15.3.2 Effects of dP/dt on dτig,i/dT
15.3.3 Preignition Tendency of Ethanol Mixtures
15.3.4 Preignition Tendency of n-Hexane Mixtures
15.4 Summary
References