Engineering Geology

1. Introduction to Engineering Geology 1–10
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Engineering Geology 1
1.3 Importance of Engineering Geology in Civil Engineering 2
1.4 Engineering Practice with Rocks and Soils in Ancient India 3
1.5 History and Development of Engineering Geology in India 5
1.6 Work-activities of Engineering Geologists 6
1.7 Forum of Engineering Geologists and Engineers 7
1.8 Recent Advancements in Engineering Geology 8
2. Rocks and Minerals 11–50
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Major Rock Types and Their Origin 11
2.3 Classification, Description, and Engineering Usage of Igneous Rocks 16
2.4 Classification, Description, and Engineering Usage of Sedimentary Rocks 21
2.5 Classification, Description, and Engineering Usage of Metamorphic Rocks 25
2.6 Origin and Characteristics of Minerals 29
2.7 Classification of Minerals Based on Chemical Composition 33
2.8 Rock-forming, Ore-forming, and Precious Minerals 40
2.9 Identification of Minerals Under Microscope 43
2.10 Geological Timescale and Unconformities Between Rock Formations 44
2.11 Field Identification of Common Rocks with Simple Accessories 47
3. Rock Structures and Their Engineering Significance 51–73
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Mechanism of Deformation of Rocks 51
3.3 Folds and Causes of Their Formation 53
3.4 Causes and Mechanism of Faults 57
3.5 Causes of Jointing and Genetic Types of Joints in Rocks 61
3.6 Primary Structures of Sedimentary Rocks and Their Significance 67
3.7 Potential Problems from Rock Structures in Engineering Constructions 69
4. Weathering of Rocks and its Impact on Engineering Constructions 74–84
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 Types of Weathering 74
4.3 Mechanical Weathering 75
4.4 Chemical Weathering 79
4.5 Biological Weathering 81
4.6 Effect of Weathering Due to Climatic Conditions and Geologic Time 82
4.7 Impact of Weathering on Engineering Constructions 82
5. Soil Formation, Engineering Classification, and Description of Indian Soils 85–105
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Geological Processes Responsible for Soil Formation 85
5.3 Glacial and Fluvioglacial Actions 89
5.4 Wind Action and Windborne Deposits 91
5.5 Formation of Terraces, Talus, and Organic Deposits 93
5.6 Soils Derived from Different Depositional Regimes 94
5.7 Soil Classification for Engineering Constructions 95
5.8 Identification of Different Soil Types 96
5.9 Clay Minerals in Soils and Their Engineering Significance 99
5.10 Soils of India—Characteristics and Occurrence 101
6. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics 106–143
6.1 Introduction 106
6.2 Soil Phases, Components of Soil, and Size of Soil Particles 106
6.3 Index Properties of Soils and Their Laboratory Determination 109
6.4 Consistency Limits (Atterberg Limits) and Their Determination 111
6.5 Field Method of Density Determination 113
6.6 Size and Shape of Soil Particles 115
6.7 Swelling Clay and Its Expansive Characteristic 118
6.8 Soil Permeability 119
6.9 Consolidation of Soil 122
6.10 Soil Compaction 125
6.11 Earth Pressure and Retaining Structures 128
6.12 Shear Stress, Shear Strength, and Failure Mechanism 130
6.13 Building Site Geotechnical Investigation 135
6.14 Determination of Bearing Capacity of Soil for Building Site 136
6.15 Shallow Building Foundations 137
6.16 Deep Foundations for Buildings 139
7. Hydrology and Geological Works of Rivers 144–157
7.1 Introduction 144
7.2 River Hydrology 144
7.3 Erosional Processes of a River 145
7.4 Depositional and Transportation Characteristics of a River 147
7.5 Work-activities of a River in Different Stages 149
7.6 Characteristic Deposition of Deltaic Environment 153
7.7 River Drainage Patterns and River Capture 154
7.8 Engineering Uses of River Deposits/Alluvial Soil 155
8. Geological Works of Oceans and Coastal Management 158–174
8.1 Introduction 158
8.2 Ocean Features and Divisions of Ocean Floor 158
8.3 Agents of Ocean Activity 159
8.4 Landforms Created by Ocean Erosion 161
8.5 Some Typical Oceanic Landforms 163
8.6 Coastal Landforms of Varied Patterns and Deposits 164
8.7 Erosion of Shallow Coastal Land 166
8.8 Littoral Drifts 169
8.9 Coastal Management 169
8.10 Case Study—Coastal Erosion at Uppada Along Kakinada Coast, Andhra Pradesh (Pal and Rao 2009) 172
9. Underground Water in Relation to Engineering Works 175–195
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 Hydrological Cycle 175
9.3 Modes of Occurence and Source of Underground Water 176
9.4 Factors Deciding the Configuration of Water Table 177
9.5 Soil Water 178
9.6 Confined and Unconfined Aquifers 179
9.7 Water Retaining and Transmitting Capacity of Soil and Rock 182
9.8 Groundwater Movement 184
9.9 Systematic Groundwater Investigation 184
9.10 Utility, Yield, Withdrawal, and Artificial Recharge of Groundwater 186
9.11 Groundwater Province and Hazards of Using Its Water 189
9.12 Influence of Underground Water in Engineering Constructions 190
9.13 Case Study on Groundwater Problems and Its Solution 192
10. Applications of Rock Mechanics in Engineering Geology 196–225
10.1 Introduction 196
10.2 Relevance of Rock Mechanics in Evaluating Rock and Rock Mass Properties 196
10.3 Determination of Common Properties of Rocks 198
10.4 Measurement of Strength of Intact Rock 200
10.5 Elastic Properties of Rocks 205
10.6 Measurement of Stress in Underground Rocks 206
10.7 Estimation of Rock Mass Properties 210
10.8 NGI Rock Mass Classification to Estimate Tunnelling Quality Index 212
10.9 Geomechanics Classification Based on Rock Mass Rating 217
10.10 Geological Strength Index for Blocky and Heterogeneous Rock Mass 220
11. Site Investigation 226–260
11.1 Introduction 226
11.2 Different Stages of Site Investigation 226
11.3 Aerial Photography Interpretation and Satellite Remote Sensing 232
11.4 Geophysical Exploration 238
11.5 Subsoil Exploration and Sampling of Soils 245
11.6 Methods of Subsoil Exploration 247
11.7 Exploratory Drilling in Rocks 250
11.8 Water Pumping Tests—Approach and Utility 257
12. Construction Materials 261–280
12.1 Introduction 261
12.2 Principal Types of Construction Materials 261
12.3 Characteristics and Usage of Different Types of Construction Materials 262
12.4 Laboratory Tests of Aggregates with Indian Standard Specification 269
12.5 Materials for Use as Railway Ballast and Road Metal 272
12.6 Deleterious Materials and Alkali–Aggregate Reaction 274
12.7 Petrographic Study of Aggregate 275
12.8 Source of Construction Materials in India 276
12.9 Exploration for Construction Materials and Selecting Quarry Sites 277
13. Treatment of Rocks and Soil by Grouting 281–297
13.1 Introduction 281
13.2 Geotechnical Considerations in Grouting 281
13.3 Different Types of Grouting Including Their Patterns 283
13.4 Grouting Equipment and Packers 286
13.5 Basic Ingredients of Grout and Admixtures 287
13.6 Grouting Approaches for Various Engineering Structures 288
13.7 Grouting Plan and Pattern with Indian Examples 290
13.8 Effective Pressure and Rock Mass Permeability 293
13.9 Treatment of Cavity by Grouting 294
13.10 Efficacy of Grouting 295
14. Dams and Spillways 298–327
14.1 Introduction 298
14.2 Terminology and Basic Aspects of Dam Construction 298
14.3 Types of Dams and Their Functions 300
14.4 Spillways and Gates 306
14.5 Influence of Geomorphology and Geology in the Design of a Dam 310
14.6 Adverse Effects of Faults in Dam Foundation and Its Treatment 312
14.7 Causative Factors of Dam Disasters 314
14.8 Preliminary Investigation and Selection of a Dam Site 316
14.9 Detailed Investigation of a Dam Site for Design Purposes 317
14.10 Source of Building Materials for Different Types of Dams 318
14.11 River Diversion and Construction Work 322
14.12 Post-construction Work 325
15. Reservoirs 328–347
15.1 Introduction 328
15.2 Creation and Functions of Reservoirs 328
15.3 Degradation of Catchment and Reservoir Rim Areas 331
15.4 Erosion of Catchment Area and Reservoir Sedimentation 332
15.5 Reservoir Capacity and Reservoir Life 334
15.6 Salient Aspects of Reservoir Investigation 335
15.7 Pumped Storage Scheme with Case Study 339
15.8 Petrological Study of Suspended Silts in River Water 341
15.9 Reservoir-related Earthquakes 343
15.10 Environmental Impact of Creation of a Reservoir 344
16. Tunnels 348–380
16.1 Introduction 348
16.2 Components and Types of Tunnels 348
16.3 Tunnelling Through Rock 350
16.4 Tunnelling Through Soft Ground 356
16.5 Geological Hazards in Tunnelling 358
16.6 Different Stages of Geotechnical Works for Tunnel 361
16.7 Conventional Methods and Machineries Used in Tunnelling 366
16.8 Excavation Methods of Rock Tunnelling and Support System 368
16.9 Pressure Tunnel and Lining 372
16.10 Rock Mass Quality and Support Requirement 373
17. Powerhouses 381–396
17.1 Introduction 381
17.2 Different Types of Powerhouses and Generation of Hydropower 381
17.3 Surface Powerhouse for Hydroelectric Project 383
17.4 Instances of Geotechnical Problems of Surface Powerhouse 386
17.5 Underground Powerhouse of a Hydroelectric Project 387
17.6 Instances of Geological Problems in Underground Powerhouses 389
17.7 Thermal Powerhouse 391
17.8 Nuclear Powerhouse 392
18. Bridges 397–416
18.1 Introduction 397
18.2 Basics of a Bridge 397
18.3 Major Types of Bridges and Acting Forces 398
18.4 Supports and Foundations of Bridges 401
18.5 Different Aspects of Engineering Geological Investigation of a Bridge Site 406
18.6 Locating a Bridge at Different Reaches of a River 406
18.7 Bridge Sites in Alluvial Plains 408
18.8 Bridge Foundation in Subsoil in Relation to Depth of Scouring 409
18.9 Construction Materials for a Bridge 410
18.10 Salient Points Related to Geotechnical Evaluation of a Bridge Site 411
18.11 Case Studies on Bridges Including a Collapsed Bridge 411
19. Highways, Runways, Canals, Power Channels, and Flumes 417–433
19.1 Introduction 417
19.2 Highways 417
19.3 Runways 421
19.4 Canals 423
19.5 Power Channels 428
19.6 Flumes 430
20. Natural Hazards 434–465
20.1 Introduction 434
20.2 Earthquake 434
20.3 Earth’s Interior and Propagation of Seismic Waves 438
20.4 Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics in Relation to Earthquakes 440
20.5 Volcano and Its Activity Related to Earthquake and Other Effects 441
20.6 Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquakes 444
20.7 Seismic Zoning and Codes for Earthquake Resistance 447
20.8 Reservoir-induced Seismicity 450
20.9 Seismotectonic Framework of India 452
20.10 Geological Considerations in Aseismic Design 456
20.11 Forecasting Earthquakes 457
20.12 Case Study on a Devastating Earthquake 459
20.13 Tsunamis 460
21. Landslide Evaluation and Mitigation 466–489
21.1 Introduction 466
21.2 Hazards of Landslides 466
21.3 Landslide Types—Classification and Description 468
21.4 Causes of Landslides 473
21.5 Investigation of Areas Affected by Landslides and Slide-prone Areas 476
21.6 Landslide Hazard Zonation Mapping 476
21.7 Landslide Hazard Mitigation 479
21.8 Instances of Major Landslides in India 484
21.9 Case Study on Landslides in India in Recent Past 486
21.10 Case Study on Mizoram Landslides (Mukherjee and Bhagwan 2009) 486
22. Karstic Terrain Investigation 490–502
22.1 Introduction 490
22.2 Solubility of Limestone and Formation of Karst 490
22.3 Surface and Subsurface Forms of Limestone Caverns 492
22.4 Speleological and Other Methods of Evaluation of Karstic Condition 493
22.5 Chemical and Radioactive Tracer Study of Reservoirs 496
22.6 Construction of Dams and Reservoirs in Karstic Limestone 497
22.7 Instances of Karstic Limestone Problems and Remedial Measures 497
23. Guidelines for Writing an Engineering Geology Report 503–512
23.1 Introduction 503
23.2 Objective of an Engineering Geology Report 503
23.3 Basic Aspects 504
23.4 Geological Inputs 504
23.5 Reports for Different Phases of Site Investigation 506
23.6 Report for Special Investigations 508
23.7 In-field Preparation of Write-up for a Report 508
23.8 Illustrative Example of an Engineering Geology Report 509
24. Physiography, Stratigraphy, and Ores and Minerals of India 513–532
24.1 Introduction 513
24.2 Physiographic Features of India 513
24.3 Stratigraphy of India 517
24.4 The Archaean Complex 518
24.5 Palaeozoic Era 520
24.6 Gondwana Formation 522
24.7 Mesozoic Era 523
24.8 Tertiary Rock Formations 524
24.9 Quaternary Period 525
24.10 Economic Resources from Rock Formations 526
Appendix A: Geotechnical Problems of Dams and Their Solutions 533–539
Appendix B: Geotechnical Problems of Tunnels and Their Solutions 540–543
Appendix C: Glossary 544–550
References 551–558
Index 559–566
About the Author 567