Encyclopedia of Early Modern Philosophy and the Sciences

Preface
References
Acknowledgements
List of Topics
About the Editors
About the Section Editors
Contributors
A
Absolute and Relative Motion
Introduction
Detailed Description
Metaphysics
Epistemology
Cross-References
References
Absolute Space in Natural Philosophy
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Newton and Absolute Space
Cross-References
References
Acoustics
Actio in distans
Action at a Distance in Early Modern Natural Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Action at a Distance in the Renaissance Revival of Natural Magic
Action at a Distance in English Natural Philosophy Before Newton
Newton and Action at a Distance
Newtonianism and Action at a Distance
Cross-References
References
Acuity
Adamic Language
Aesthetics
Definition/Introduction
General Introduction
The Preliminary Concepts of Renaissance and Early Modern Theory of Art
Idea
Disegno
Perspective
Color´s Secondary Function
Verisimilitude
Decorum
Genius
Central Authors of Art Theory in the Renaissance
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)
The Middle Generation of Rationalist Art Theory: Piero Della Francesca (1415-1492) and Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)
Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519)
Gian Paolo Lomazzo (1538-1592)
Protestant Architectural Theory: Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554) and Philibert De L´Orme (ca. 1510-1570) (1982)
The Seventeenth Century
The Proliferation of the Art Academies
The Relation to Antiquity
Ut Pictura Poesis
The Beginning of Art Criticism in the Academies
Rationalist and Scientific Influences
The Importance of De Piles (1635-1709)
The Eighteenth Century
The Establishment of the Profession of the Art Critic
Baumgarten and the Initiation of Aesthetic Discourse
Kant´s Critique of the Power of Judgment, 1790 (Kant 2013)
The Development of the Category of `Taste´
Aesthetic Education
Cross-References
References
Afterlife
Age of the Earth, The
Definition
Introduction
Cycle and Events
Metaphors of Time
Mechanism and the Formation of the Earth
Towards a Linear History of the Earth
Historical Narratives and the Birth of Stratigraphy
Ages and Epochs of Nature
Estimations of the Age of the Earth
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Agnesi, Maria Gaetana
Introduction
Infant Prodigy
An Effective Popularizer of Scientific Topics
A Passionate Philanthropist
References
Air Pressure
Alchemical Images
Synonyms
Introduction
Types of Alchemical Imagery
Visual Imagery in Western Alchemical Manuscripts
Aurora Consurgens (Dawn Rising, 1420s)
Das Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit (The Book of the Holy Trinity, 1410-1419)
Some Manuscripts in the Age of Print
Alchemical Imagery in Print
Book of the Art of Distillation (1500)
New Pearl of Great Price (1546)
Rose-Garden of the Philosophers (1550)
Pandora, That Is, the Noblest Gift of God (1582)
Amphitheatre of Eternal Wisdom (1595/1608/1609/1653)
Atalanta Fleeing (1617-1618)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alchemical Laboratories
Introduction
Etymology and Early Depictions
Laboratory Notebooks, Archaeology, and Reconstruction
The Proliferation of Laboratory Culture
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
Alchemy
Alchemy, Chemistry, and Metallurgy
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Alchemy, Chemistry, and Metallurgy
Early Modern Matter Theory and the Metals
At the Mines and Smelting Works
Metals as Species
References
Alteration
Amo, Anton Wilhelm, an African Philosopher in Eighteenth-Century Germany
Introduction
The Narrative of Anton Wilhelm Amo
References
Amphibians
Anatomical Demonstration
Anatomy
Anatomy in the Early Modern Period
Introduction
The Rise of Dissections
Seeing and Cutting
Mechanics and Solids
An Anthropological Knowledge
Cross-References
References
Anatomy Theaters and Anatomy Teaching
Synonyms
Introduction
The Anatomical Demonstration
Anatomical Theaters
Cross-References
References
Animal Dissection
Animal Experimentation
Animal Spirits: Bridging Mind and Body in Early Modern Philosophy
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Ancient and Medieval Sources
Early Modern Transformations of the Animal Spirit
Vital and Mechanical Philosophy
Animal Spirits in Magic
Legacy
Cross-References
References
Animalis
Animals in Early Modern Thought
Synonyms
Introduction
Renaissance: The Scale of Nature
A Beastly Hypothesis?
Direct Challenges to Descartes
Non-Cartesian Approaches
The Ethics of Eating
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Animism
Anne Finch, Women Philosophers
Annotation
Antimathematicism in Early Modern Philosophy and Science
Introduction
Antimathematicism
Cross-References
References
Apes
Synonyms
Related Topics
Introduction
Thinking About Apes in Early Modern Europe
Cross-References
References
Apparatus
Appetite in Early Modern Science and Medicine
Introduction
Appetite in Antiquity
Appetite in Early Modern Medicine and Philosophy
Appetite in Buffon´s Natural History
The Physiology of Appetite: Mechanists and Vitalists
Cross-References
References
Appetition, Appetite
Apprenticeship, Guilds, and Craft Knowledge
Introduction: Learning on the Shop Floor
Apprenticeship and Guilds
The Guild Debate
Guild Landscapes
References
Aristotelian Ethics in the Early-Modern Period
Introduction
Early-Modern Aristotelian Ethics
The Structure of Early-Modern Aristotelian Treatises in Ethics
The Preliminary Questions
Happiness
The Principles of Human Actions, Passions, and Virtue
References
Aristotelian Logic
Ars memorativa
Ars memoriae
Art
Art of Memory
Synonyms
Definition
The Art of Memory
Cross-References
References
Art of Persuasion
Artificial Languages
Synonyms
Introduction
Intellectual Background
Artificial Language Schemes in England
Leibniz and Characteristica Universalis
Cross-References
References
Artisanal Knowledge and Craftsmanship
Introduction: The Politics of Artisanal Knowledge
The Practices of Artisanal Knowledge
The Epistemology of Artisanal Knowledge
References
Artisans
Artisanship
Artists
Assemblage
Astrology in the Early Modern Period: Practices and Concepts
Introduction
Astrology in Late Medieval Scholastic Culture
Renaissance Astrology
Lutheran Astrology
Philosophical Reform in the Early Seventeenth Century: Johannes Kepler and Francis Bacon
Popular Error and Political Order
Reinventing and Reforming Astrology in the Seventeenth Century
The Death of Astrology?
Cross-References
References
Austen, Ralph
Introduction
Austen´s Work and Networking
Austen´s Projects of Natural History
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Authors
Automata in the Early Modern Period
Definition
A Brief History
Automata, Philosophy, and Physiology
Descartes and Automata
The Spread of the Automata Comparison
The Rejection of the Automaton Comparison
The Spiritual Automaton
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Autopsy
B
Bacon´s Art of Discovery
Overview
The Problem of Discovery
The Art of Discovery
An Unfinished Project and Its Followers
Cross-References
References
Baconian Natural and Experimental History
Overview
Francis Bacon´s Design for a ``Historie natural and experimental´´ (Historia Naturalis et Experimentalis)
Baconian Natural and Experimental Histories in England and on the Continent
Cross-References
References
Baconianism and the Royal Society
Overview
Natural and Experimental Histories
The Creative Value of Baconian Experiments
Speculation, Idolatry, Dogmantism: Baconianism as a Form of Medicina Mentis
Collaborative Science, the New Atlantis, and the Advancement of Learning
Cross-References
References
Balsam
Synonyms
Definition
Heritage and Rupture with the Tradition
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Balsamum
Barometers: History and Development in Experimental Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Barometers: Early History and Development
Cross-References
References
Bayle and Early Modern Free Thought
Synonyms
Introduction
Biography
Moral Rationalism and Tolerance
Reason and Faith
Atheism
Conclusion
References
Beasts
Becher, Johann Joachim
Introduction
Life
Influences
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Beeckman, Isaac
Synonyms
Introduction
Life
Sources
Philosophy
Physics
Music
Senses
Theology
Cross-References
References
Biological Classifications
Biological Nomenclature
Birds, Natural History of
Introduction
Birdsong
Flight
References
Blood: From Humor to Hematology
Synonyms
Introduction
Histories of Blood
The Humor of Blood
The Circulation of Blood
The Monthly Evacuation of Blood
The Color of Blood
The Shape of Blood
The Elements of Blood
The Temperature of Blood
The Pulse of Blood
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Body and Extension in the Scientific Revolution
Introduction
Body and Extension from Descartes to Newton
Descartes
Locke
Leibniz
Newton
Cross-References
References
Boerhaave and Eighteenth-Century Dutch Medicine
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Communis Europae Praeceptor
From Strict Mechanical Medicine to a Chemico-medical Program
Boerhaave School
Chemistry of the Fluids
Vital Principles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Boerhaave School, Health, Healing, Body
Bohemia, Elisabeth of
Synonyms
Introduction
Life
Elisabeth´s Intellectual Circles at The Hague
The Correspondence with René Descartes
Mind-Body Interaction
The Three Circle Problem
Natural Philosophy
The Passions
Happiness and the Highest Good
Political Thought
Elisabeth´ Intellectual Activities at Heidelberg
The University of Heidelberg
The Diffusion of Cartesian Thought
Elisabeth as Abbess of Herford
References
Books of Secrets and Vernacular Knowledge
Introduction: A Sixteenth-Century Publishing Phenomenon
The Secrets of Alessio
The Professors of Secrets
Vernacular Knowledge
Books of Secrets and Magic
Common Experimenters
The Secrets of Nature
Conclusion
References
Boscovich, Roger Joseph
Boscovich, Rogerio Josepho
Boscovich, Ruggero Giuseppe
Bosković, Rugjer Josip
Synonyms
Related Topics
Definition/Introduction
Bosković´s Works and Significance
Bosković´s Life and Works
Bosković´s Contributions to Natural Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Botany and Medicine
Introduction
The Fabrication of Therapeutics and Pharmacology in the Sixteenth Century
The Theory of Signatures
The Physiology of the Basic Living Activities: the Seventeenth Century
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Boyle´s Mechanical Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Boyle´s Life and Works
Corpuscularianism
Mechanical Explanations
Polemics
Qualities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bruno, Giordano
Synonyms
Introduction
The Renegade Monk
The Master of Memory at the French Court
England: The Italian Dialogues
Return to Paris
Germany and Prague
Return to Italy
Impact
Cross-References
References
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc de (1707-1788)
Life and Work
A Project of Reformation of the Natural Sciences Around Natural History
Cosmology and Theories of the Earth
Theory of Generation and the Problem of Species
The Natural History of Man
The Natural History of Animals
Cross-References
References
C
Camera Obscura
Synonyms
Definition
The Camera Obscura
References
Carl von Linné
Carolus Linnaeus
Carolus Linnæus
Cartesian Feminism
Introduction
Cartesian Roots and Branches
Descartes on Generation
Descartes on Politics
Poulain´s Cartesian Politicization
Cross-References
References
Cartesianism and Experimental Philosophy
Introduction
Cartesianism
Cross-References
References
Cavendish, Margaret
Introduction
Cavendish´s Life
Philosophical Works
Nature and God
Matter
Motion and Motions
Causation and Order
Mind and Perception
Epistemology, Methodology, and Experimental Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Censorship, Self-Censorship, and Dissimulation
Introduction
Censorship: Ecclesiastical and Political
Censorship in Northern Europe
Organization of Catholic Censorship
Self-Censorship
Dissimulation
Modern Philosophy and Science Through a Looking-Glass
Effects of Catholic Censorship
Cross-References
References
Cetology, Sixteenth to eighteenth Centuries
Synonyms
Cross-References
References
Challe, Robert
Introduction
Challe´s Works and Significance
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Characteristica Universalis
Charlatans
Charles Linné
Chemical Philosophy
Chemical Principles
Chemistry
Chemistry and Alchemy in Early Modern Philosophy: An Introduction
Definition
References
Chemistry Teaching and Textbooks in the Seventeenth Century
Introduction
The Early Courses in the German States
Chemistry Teaching in France
Chemical Education in Britain
Boerhaave and the Establishment of a Didactic Tradition in the Netherlands
Cross-References
References
Chrysopoeia
Chymia
Chymiatria
Chymistry
Chymistry (Alchemy/Chemistry)
Synonyms
Introduction
The Many Faces of Alchemy
Paracelsus and Chymical Remedies
Chymical Philosophers
Calls for Renewal
Alchemical Symbolism
The Spread of Chymical Knowledge
Places and Practitioners of Chymistry
Concluding Remarks
References
Circulation of the Blood
Definition
Introduction
Before and After De Motu Cordis
De Motu Cordis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Civility and Politeness in Early Modern Thought
Synonyms
Introduction
French and British Traditions of Civility and Politeness in Early Modern Europe
Politeness and Political Regimes: the Montesquieu-Hume Thesis
Sociability and Artificial Civility in the Eighteenth Century (Mandeville-Hume)
Adam Smith: Manners and Morals
Republican Civility from Rousseau to the French Revolution
Moderate Republican Civility and the Emergence of the Liberal Ethos
Cross-References
References
Civilization
Clandestine Philosophy: Early Modern Clandestine Manuscripts and Their Philosophical Contribution
Introduction
What Is a Clandestine Philosophical Manuscript?
What Are Clandestine Philosophies?
A History in Scholarship: The Discovery of the Clandestine Philosophical Manuscripts
Rethinking the Origins of the Enlightenment
Interpreting the Clandestine Philosophies: Radical Libertinism and Radical Enlightenment
The Philosophes and the Clandestine Workshop
Cross-References
References
Clarke, Samuel
Introduction
Clarke´s Life and Works
Key Arguments
Cross-References
References
Classical Studies
Classical/Analytic/Eighteenth Century/Eighteenth Century/Newtonian/Enlightenment Mechanics
Classical/Analytic/Eighteenth Century/Eighteenth Century/Newtonian/Enlightenment Physics
Clauberg, Johannes
Introduction
Clauberg´s Life and Thought
General Biography
Clauberg´s Cartesianism
Clauberg´s Ontosophia
Clauberg´s Other Writings
Cross-References
References
Clemency
Climate and Meteorology: From Aristotelian Natural Philosophy to the Eighteenth Century
Introduction
Aristotelian Meteorology Around 1500
Crisis and Transformation of Classic Meteorology (1550-1650)
The Eighteenth Century: Description and Quantification
Cross-References
References
Cognition
Cognitive Faculties
Cognitive/Mental Capacities
Cognitive/Mental Powers
Collins, Anthony
Definition/Introduction
Collins, Anthony
Cross-References
References
Color in the Early Modern Period
Definition/Introduction
Introduction
Color in Late Scholastic Aristotelianism
Color in Bodies: The Definition and Origin of Color
Color in the Medium: Species of Color and the Real-Apparent Distinction in Scholasticism
Colors in the Eye
Color in the Seventeenth Century
Painters´ Primaries and Color World Interaction
Colors in Bodies: Chymical Colors and Color as Texture
Color in the Medium: The Collapse of the Light/Color Distinction and the Rise of Modificationism
Color in the Eye
Colors as Sensations
Newton´s Theory of Colors
Newton´s Prism Experiments and the Rejection of Modificationism
Color in the Eighteenth Century
Cross-References
References
Comenius, Bacon, and the Royal Society
Introduction
Comenius´ Life and his Pansophic Endeavor
Comenius Between Bacon and the Royal Society
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Common Sense
Communication
Comparative Anatomy in Early Modern Times
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Animal as Human Surrogate
The Animal as Subject of Study
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Complexion (cf. Temperament)
Introduction
Ancient Roots
Temperament in Early Modern Thought
Cross-References
References
Conatus
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Conatus: Various Uses of the Concept
Conatus in Late-Scholastic Natural Philosophy
Conatus in Descartes´ Physics and Optics
Conatus in Hobbes´ Physics and Physiology
Conatus in Spinoza´s Metaphysics
Conatus in Huygens´ Physics
Conatus in Leibniz´s Early Works
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Consciousness in Early Modern Philosophy and Science
Introduction and Background
Conspicuity and Flexibility of Consciousness
Consciousness and Thinking
Consciousness, Reflexivity, and the Self
Consciousness and Certainty
Consciousness and Materialism
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Conway, Anne
Synonyms
Introduction
Biography
Conway´s System in Outline
God and Creatures
Monism
Perfectibility
Religion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Cordemoy, Géraud de (1626-1684)
Definition/Introduction
Géraud de Cordemoy (1626-1684)
Cross-References
References
Corpuscular Philosophy
Corpuscular Theory
Corpuscularianism
Definition/Introduction
General Outline
Note on the Order of the Present Exposition
The Origin of Corpuscularianism: Aristotle´s Minima and Pores
``Minima´´ and ``Corpuscles´´: Differences and Similarities
Late Classical and Medieval Developments
The Mathematization of Forms and Qualities
Chemical Corpuscularianism
Galileo, Descartes, and Newton and the End of Corpuscularianism as a ``Form Theory´´
Cross-References
References
Correspondence Networks
Corruption
Coterie
Craftsmen
Creatures
Creeping Things
Croll, Oswald
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Cross-Modal Perception
Cuenz, Gaspard
Intellectual Biography
Cross-References
References
Cunning
D
D´Alembert´s Mechanics and Its Philosophical Foundations
Synonyms
Introduction
Clarifying the Foundations of Mechanics
Establishing Necessary Principles of Mechanics
The ``General Theorem of Dynamics´´
Conclusion
References
Main Works of D´Alembert Relevant to Mechanics and Natural Philosophy
Main Studies of D´Alembert´s Mechanics
Main Studies of D´Alembert´s Natural Philosophy
General Presentations of Mechanics and Its History
Daemon
Dark Chamber
Das Genie
De Caus, Salomon
Introduction
Life and Work
Contributions
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Decay
Decorum
Degeneration Theory
Synonyms
Introduction
Definition(s)
The Different Uses of Degeneration in Early Modern Period
Sin and Degeneration
The Degenerate Noble
The Degeneration Between Medicine and Breeding Practices
Transformations from the Mid-Seventeenth Century: Degeneration as an Object of Politics and Natural Sciences
Degeneration as an Emerging Biopolitical Stake
Degeneration in Natural History
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Demonstration, Method of
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Demonstrative Mathematical Knowledge
The Aristotelian/Euclidean Model of Deductive Science
The Mathematical Revolution and Mathematical Physics
Demonstration in Pure Mathematics
Probability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Descartes, Mathematics and the Science of Motion
Definition/Introduction
Descartes: Mathematics and the Science of Motion
Intuiting the Objects of Geometry
Geometry and Motion in The Geometry (1637)
Mechanics and Motion, 1637-1638
Cross-References
References
Descartes, René (1596-1650): His Scientific Work and Its Reception
Introduction
Physics and Metaphysics
The Body-Machine
The Embodied Soul
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Descartes´ Mechanical Philosophy
Introduction
Beyond Method: How Descartes Formed Explanations in Mechanical Natural Philosophy
Descartes´ Matter Theory: Corpuscular Elements Not Matter-Extension
Causation: Not Simply ``Matter in Motion,´´ but the Punctiform Dynamics of Corpuscles
Vortex Celestial Mechanics: The ``Engine Room´´ of Cartesian Mechanism
Descartes´ Grand Systematizing and Explanatory Strategy in the Principia philosophiae
Descartes´ Radical Copernican Realism and the Truth Status of His Mechanical Natural Philosophy
Conclusion: Beyond the Natural Philosophical Competitors
Cross-References
References
Destiny
Development
Developmental Biology
Deviation
Dictionaries
Diderot, Denis
Introduction
Philosophy and Science
Mathematical Physics and Experimental Sciences
From Mathematics to Experimental Sciences?
Experimental Philosophy and Rational Philosophy
Mathematics and Astronomy
Matter and Life
Matter and Materials
A Chemical Vitalism
The Evolution of Species
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Works by Diderot
Other Works
Digestion in Early Modern Science and Medicine
Introduction
The Legacy of Antiquity
The Chemical Challenge: Digestion in Paracelsianism and Iatrochemistry
Iatromechanism (Seventeenth-Eighteenth Centuries)
Vital Forces, Nerves, Gastric Juice: Digestion in the Later Eighteenth Century
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Directions
Dismemberment
Disposition
Disputes and Quarrels
Dissection
Dissection in Early Modern Europe
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Revival of Human Dissection
Early Modern Dissection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Distributed Cognition in the Early Modern Era
Synonyms
Introduction
Distributed Cognition
Embodied Cognition and Enactive Cognition
Immortality and Duality
Embedded Cognition and Extended Cognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Divination
Divine Providence
Introduction
Origins of the Term ``Providence´´
``Providence´´ Before Early Modernity
``Providence´´ in Early Modernity
Systematic Reflection
Cross-References
References
Doctrinal Controversies
Doctrines of the Association of Ideas in Early Modern Thought
Introduction
Normal and Pathological Mental Functioning
Associationism, Early Modern Science, and Medicine
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Du Châtelet and Leibniz
Synonyms
Introduction
The Vis Viva as Part of the Leibnizian Force Concept
Leibniz´s Principles of Knowledge
Freedom and Motion
Cross-References
References
Du Châtelet and Newton
Introduction
Axioms, or Laws of Motion
Space, Time, and Motion
Matter and Force
Hypotheses and Principles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Du Châtelet, Émilie (1706-1749)
Synonyms
Introduction
Life and Writings
The Institutions of Physics (Foundations of Physics)
On Hypotheses
The Principles of Knowledge
Phenomena in Space
Matter and Forces
Dead and Living Forces
Newton´s Principia and Du Châtelet´s Translation
Moral Writings
The Individual in Society: From Politics to Happiness
The Mandeville Commentary
Discourse on Happiness
Women in Science and Society
Examination of the Bible
Legacy
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Du Chesne, Joseph
Introduction
Du Chesne´s Works and Significance
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Duration
Dynamica, Dynamics
Dynamics
E
Early Modern Biblical Criticism and the Role of Women: The Case of Emilie Du Châtelet
Introduction
Biblical Criticism and Women
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Early Modern Medicine
Early Modern Science
Early Modern Theories of Signs
Early Royal Society
Introduction
Early Years of the Royal Society
Main Activities and Organization
Social and Political Relations
Evolution and Development of the Early Royal Society
Historiographical Approaches
Cross-References
References
Earth Sciences
Earth, Theories of
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Eclecticism in Modern Thought
Synonyms
Introduction
From Leibniz and Christian Thomasius to Diderot: Eclecticism in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Victor Cousin and the Return of Eclecticism
Cross-References
References
Effluvia
Synonyms
Definition
History, Importance, and Uses of Effluvia in Natural Philosophy and Natural Magic
References
Elements
Elisabeth von der Pfalz, Elisabeth von Herford
Emblems
Embodiment, Early Modern Conceptions of
Introduction
Defining Embodiment
Embodiment in the Early Modern Period
Cross-References
References
Embryogenesis
Embryology
Embryology from 1600 to 1800
Synonyms
Introduction
Embryology in the Seventeenth Century: A Search for the Mechanisms of Development
Embryology in the Eighteenth Century: The Spermists, the Ovists, and the Return of Epigenesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emotions and Early Modern Science
Introduction
Education, Science, and Medicine as Discipline
Emotions in the Galenic Tradition
Matter, Motion, and Experimental Philosophy
Harvey on Heart, Spirits, and Innate Heat
Mechanizing Spirits
Completing Harvey´s Program
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Empiricism in Music
Empiricism, Early Modern
Introduction
The Origins of the Category ``Empiricism´´ and Its Historiographical Establishment
Revisionism and Critical Approaches
First Representatives of Early Modern Empiricism
Empiricism and British Canonical Philosophers
The Origin of Ideas
Knowledge Justification
The Place of Berkeley
Empiricism, Skepticism, and Materialism
Cross-References
References
Empirics in Early Modern Medicine
Synonyms
Introduction
The Medical Marketplace and the Villainizing of Empirics
Empirics and Empiricism
Cross-References
References
Encyclopedias and Encyclopedic Knowledge
Synonyms
Introduction
Scholastic Encyclopedias and Bacon
Dictionaries of the Late Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
The Encyclopédie
Encyclopedic Histories
Cross-References
References
End-Directedness
Endeavor
Endurance
Enthusiasm, Early Modern Philosophy, and Religion
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
The Early Modern Debate on Enthusiasm
The European Context
English Controversies
The Medical Debate
Semantic Evolution
Cross-References
References
Book
Book Chapter
Online Document
Epicureanism
Introduction. Back to the Shores of Light
Epicurus Reborn. Receptions, Censures, and Innovations
Reappropriating Nature (Fifteenth to Sixteenth Centuries)
Unveiling Matter (Seventeenth Century)
Enlightening Reason (Eighteenth Century)
Cross-References
References
Epigenesis
Introduction
Epigenesis in the Early Modern Period
Cross-References
References
Epistemic Images
Epistemic Images in Early-Modern Mixed Mathematics
Synonyms
Introduction: Epistemic Images
At the Crossroad of Pictorial Traditions
Disegno for Artists and Scientists Alike
From Depicting to Modelling
Conclusion: Toward Physico-mathematics
Cross-References
References
Epistemology
Equal and Opposite Reaction
Equipment
Esprit
Essence
Euler, Leonhard
Introduction
Euler´s Philosophy and Science
Cross-References
References
Exhalations
Experiences
Experientia Literata (Literate or Learned Experience)
Definition
The Problem of ``Disciplining Experience´´
Experiments in Consort
The Double Problem Behind the Art of Learned Experience: Guidance and Discovery
Experiments of Light
The Art of Learned Experience in De augmentis scientiarum
The Hunt(ing) of Pan (Venatio panis)
The Ways of Experimenting
Conflicting Interpretations of the experientia literata: Learned Experimentation or Merely Literate Experience?
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Experimental Learning
Experimental Philosophy in Early Modern Spain
Synonyms
Introduction
Experimental Philosophy in Early Modern Spain
The Experimental-Speculative Distinction
The Beginning: Juan de Cabriada´s Carta Philosophica
From Speculative to Experimental Philosophy, and Back
Martínez and Feijóo: The Vindication of Experimental Philosophy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Experimental Philosophy: An Introduction
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Observation and Experiment
What Is Experimental Philosophy?
Experimental, Mechanical, and Corpuscularian Philosophies
Experimental Philosophy and the Royal Society
Development and Adaptation of Experimental Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Experimentalism
Experimental-Speculative Distinction
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Experimental Philosophy Versus Speculative Philosophy: Competing Methods in Early Modern Natural Philosophy
Introduction
Definitions of Experimental Philosophy and Speculative Philosophy
Origins of the Experimental-Speculative Distinction
Antagonism between Experimental and Speculative Philosophy
The Experimental-Speculative Distinction at Work
The Experimental-Speculative Distinction and Historiography
Cross-References
References
Experiments
Experimentum Crucis/Instantia Crucis in the Seventeenth Century
Definition
Crucial Experiments from Bacon to Newton
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
Summary
Cross-References
References
Extended Mind
F
Fables, Mythographies, and Teaching Philosophy
Definition and Terminology
Reading the ``Language of the Fables´´
Disciplining Allegory: Teaching and the Creation of Emblems and Devices
Emblems and the Updating of Knowledge
Sincretism, Antiquarianism, and the Language of the Fables
The Persistence of the Language of the Fables Across the Divide of the Scientific Revolution
Cross-References
References
Fabrici, Girolamo (Fabricius ab Acquapendente)
Synonyms
Introduction
Fabrici´s Works and Significance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fanaticism
Fancy
Fatality
Fate in Early Modern History: Concepts and Ideas
Synonyms
Introduction
From the Middle Ages to the Reformation and Post-Reformation Debates
Fate and Mechanical Philosophy
Fatum Spinozisticum and Its Aftermath
Cross-References
References
Fatum
Fellowship
Fermentation
Introduction
Origins of the Doctrine of Fermentation
Fermentation in the Seventeenth Century: Duchesne to Boyle
Fermentation in the Eighteenth Century: Newton to Lavoisier
Conclusion
References
Fibers in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Medicine
Introduction
The Rise of the Fiber Body
Fibers and Iatromechanism
Fibers and Vitalism
Cross-References
References
Final Causation
Finality
Finite Substance
Fire Matter
Fire Principle
Fish and the Birth of Early Modern Ichthyology
Synonyms
Definition
Origins: Birth and Development of Early Modern Ichthyology as Science
Cross-References
References
Fludd, Robert
Introduction
Robert Fludd
Cross-References
References
Fluid Statics
Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de
Introduction
Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle
Cross-References
References
Forbearance
Forma, Species
Formulas
4E Cognition
Franciscus Glissonius
Free Thought
Free Will
Freedom
Freedom of Choice
G
Gabrielle-Émilie le Tonnelier de Breteuil
Galenism in Early Modern Philosophy and Medicine
Introduction
Tradition, Erudition, and Experience
Galenism and Iatrochemistry
Galenism and Christian Thought
Galenism and Mechanism
Galen´s Legacy Beyond Galenism
Cross-References
References
Galileo´s Natural Philosophy
Introduction
Galileo´s Search for the True System of the World
Galileo´s Theories of Free Fall and Projectile Motion
From minimi corpuscoli to atomi non quanti: The Evolution of Galileo´s Matter Theory
Cross-References
References
Gassendi, Pierre
Introduction
Life and Works
Gassendi´s Polemical Works
Gassendi´s Revival of Epicureanism: Antiquarianism at the Service of a New Philosophy and Science
Gassendi and the New Science
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
General Grammar
Generation
Generation Theory
Introduction
Generation Theory in Early Modern Thought
Generation Theory 1650-1700
Generation Theory 1700-1750
Generation Theory 1750-1800
Cross-References
References
Génie
Genius and Inspiration in the Early Modern Period
Synonyms
Introduction
The Renaissance of Genius
Ruled Genius
Unruly Genius
Cross-References
References
Genius, as ingenium
Synonyms
Introduction
The Language of Ingenuity
Cause and Effect of All Inventions
Generative Power
Human Diversity and the Politics of Ingenuity
Cross-References
References
Geognosy
German Rationalist Women (Gottsched, Unzer)
Definition/Introduction
Introduction
Luise Adelgunde Viktorie Gottsched (1713-1762)
Johanna Charlotte Unzer (1725-1782)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Geronimo Fabrici d´Acquapendente
Geronimo Fabrizio d´Acquapendente
Gilbert, William
Introduction
Gilbert´s Intellectual Biography
De magnete and Natural Philosophy
The Legacy of Gilbert´s Work
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Girolamo Fabrizio d´Acquapendente
Glisson, Francis, and the Irritable Life of Nature
Synonyms
Introduction
Early Life: Epidemiological and Clinical Medicine
Related Topics
Anatomical Investigations at the College of Physicians
Teaching Medicine at the University of Cambridge
Fellow of the Royal Society
Philosophical Withdrawal
Hylozoistic Anatomy and the Doctrine of Irritability
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Glyphs
Goal-Directedness
Gold-Making
Grace, Early Modern Discussions of
Introduction
Resistible or Irresistible Saving Grace?
Grace in Theological Loci
Different Positions on Saving or Converting Grace
Sanctification and Perseverance
Means of Grace
Non-saving Graces
Theodicy: Reconciling Grace, Providence, and Free Choice
Thomism Broadly Construed
Responses of Molina and Surez: The Theological Incorporation of Middle Knowledge
A Faithful Skepticism of Theodicy
Nature, Grace, and Cartesian Dualism
Cartesian Dualism and Other Concerns
Malebranche´s Nature and Grace
Antoine Arnauld
Gottfried Leibniz
Select Philosophers Responding to the Controversies Involving Grace
Blaise Pascal
Deism
John Locke
Cross-References
References
Grammar in the Early Modern Period
Synonyms
Introduction
Teaching Grammar in the Early Modern Period
Toward a General Grammar
Cross-References
References
Gravity as a Property of Matter
Definition/Introduction
Is Gravity a Property of Matter?
Cross-References
References
Grew, Nehemiah (1641-1712)
Introduction
Nehemiah Grew
Grew´s Career within the Royal Society
The Anatomy of Plants
Grew´s Vitalism
Cross-References
References
Grotius, Hugo
Synonyms
Introduction
Grotius´s Works and Significance
Cross-References
References
Grubendol
H
Habit and Custom in the History of Early Modern Philosophy
Synonyms
Definition
Habit and Custom in Nature and Politics
Bodily and Intellectual Habits
Habit in Perception, Associations of Ideas, and Reasoning
The Double Law of Habit: A Physiological Approach
Cross-References
References
Hand
Hartley, David
Introduction
Hartley´s Project
The Physiological Cause of Ideas
Association as the Principle of Learning and Moral Progress
Cross-References
References
Harvey, William
Introduction
Published Works
The Movement of the Heart and Blood
Epigenesis and Animal Generation
Harvey, Aristotelianism, and the Mechanical Philosophy
Harvey, Empiricism, and Experimental Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Herptiles
Heterogeneity
History and Philosophy of Early Modern Botany
Introduction
Observation, Representation, Description
Classification and Nomenclature
Experimentation
Socioeconomic Context and Cultural Issues
Cross-References
References
Hobbes on First Philosophy and Natural Philosophy
Introduction
The System of De Corpore
Foundations of First Philosophy
Hobbes and Conatus
Hobbes, Descartes, and the Scope of Mechanism
Cross-References
References
Hobbes on Mixed Mathematics
Definition/Introduction
Background: Hobbes´s Interest in Mixed Mathematics and His Broader Philosophical Program
Hobbes on Pure Versus Mixed Mathematics
The Principles Borrowed for Mixed Mathematics Explanations
Two Examples of Hobbesian Mixed-Mathematical Explanation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Works for Further Exploration
Home
Homunculus
Introduction
Paracelsus and the Homunculus
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Honnêteté
Hooke, Robert
Introduction
Hooke´s Life and Career
Hooke´s Research and Writings
Cross-References
References
Horology
Definition/Introduction
Measuring Time: Mediating between Theory and Empirical Phenomena
Cross-References
References
Hosts
Household and Domestic Practices of Knowledge
Synonyms
Introduction
Cross-References
References
How-to Texts
Hugo de Groot
Human Body from the Perspective of Psychology
Introduction
The Aristotelian Body
The Human Body of Anatomy
The Mechanist Body
Cross-References
References
Human Destiny
Hume, David (1711-1776)
Introduction
Hume´s Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Humors and the Mind
Introduction
Ancient Theories of Humors
Early Modern Humoralism
Alternative Theories of Body and Mind
Cross-References
References
Huygens, Christiaan
Introduction
The Young Physicist
A Dutch Academician in Paris
The Astronomer
Engineer, Drawer, Musician, and Even Mathematician!
The Galilean and Cartesian mechanist
Huygens and light
Illness and Exclusion
Beholding the ``Cosmos´´
Cross-References
References
Hydraulics
Hydrostatics in the Seventeenth Century
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Seventeenth-Century Hydrostatics: Euclidean Science or Experimental Philosophy?
Introduction
Stevin´s Hydrostatics, Euclidean Style
Pascal´s Hydrostatics and Experiment
Boyle´s Theoretical, As Well as Experimental, Innovations
Newton´s Hydrostatics and the Explanation of Hydrostatic Paradoxes
Cross-References
References
I
Iatrochemistry
Iatrochemistry and Iatromechanism in the Early Modern Era
Introduction
Iatrochemistry
Alchemy and Medicine Before Paracelsus
Paracelsus and His Followers
Jean Baptiste van Helmont
Iatromechanism
Harvey to Descartes
Stensen, Willis, Boyle, and Newtonian Medicine
Borelli, Malpighi, Bellini
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Iatromechanism
Ideas, Theory of in Early Modern Philosophy
Introduction
Descartes on Ideas
The Origin of Ideas
The Structure of Ideas
Spinoza
Malebranche on Ideas
Locke on Ideas
Early Critics of Locke
Leibniz
Bishop Berkeley
Thomas Reid
Cross-References
References
Images
Images in Early Modern Natural History
Synonyms
Introduction
What Makes an Image Scientific?
Naturalism
The Authority of the Image
Rationalization
Epistemic Images
The Legitimacy of Images
Critics Against Images
The Defense of Images
Cross-References
References
Imagination in Early Modern Theory of Knowledge
Synonyms
Introduction
Ancient and Medieval Heritage: The Classical Conception of Imagination
New Approaches to Imagination in the Early Modern Period
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
René Descartes (1596-1650)
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673)
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
John Locke (1632-1704)
Henry More (1614-1687)
David Hume (1711-1776)
George Berkeley (1685-1753)
Voltaire (1694-1778) and the Encyclopédie (1751-1777)
Imagination in Magic and the Occult Sciences
Legacy: Kant and Beyond
Cross-References
References
Immortal Life
Imperial Trade and Commerce
Imposition
Definition
Cross-References
References
Indefinite
Individual
Individuality in Early Modern Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction: Aristotelian Theories of Individuality
Early Modern Theories of Individuality
Descartes and the Cartesian Response
Descartes´s Notion of Substance
Individuality of the Body
Individuality of the Mind and of the Human Being
Challenges to the Cartesian Response
Spinoza
Leibniz
Locke
Hume
Summary
Cross-References
References
Individuum
Indulgence
Infinite
Infinity in Early Modern Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Main Figures
Galileo and Bayle
Descartes
Spinoza
Leibniz
Pascal and the Port-Royal Logic
Berkeley and Hume
Kant
Cross-References
References
Information Management
Ingenium
Ingenuity
Instructions
Instruments and Instrument Makers in Early Modern Europe
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Instruments and Instrument Makers
Cross-References
References
Intellect
Intellectualism
Intellectualism and Voluntarism
Synonyms
Introduction
The Origins of Voluntarist Theology
Voluntarist Theology and the Rise of Science in the Seventeenth Century
The Age of Reason: An Age of Intellectualism
The ``Voluntarism and Science´´ Thesis Challenged
Cross-References
References
Intellectualist Theology
Intentionality in Early Modern Thought
Introduction
Individuation and Intentional Objects
Intentionality as Intrinsic Phenomenal Presence
Malebranche´s Representationalism
Dual Reality Theories and Direct Realism
Intentionality and Ontology
Cross-References
References
Intermodality
Internal Reception
Internal Susception
Intus-sumptio
Intussusception
Synonyms
Definition
The Origin and Development of the Concept of ``Intussusception´´ in Early Modernity
Scholastic Origins: Intus-sumptio and Nutrition as a Faculty of the Soul
The Atomist Assimilation of Intussusception
Intussusception and Mineral Growth
Intussusception, Organic Bodies, and Generation
Intussusception and the Organic
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Invention
Isaacus Beeckmannus
Isack Beeckmans
Isack Beekman
Italian Women on Philosophy of Nature
Introduction
Transforming the Canon
The Leading Role of Women During the Renaissance
Camilla Gregetta Erculiani´s Letters on Natural Philosophy (1584)
An Original Subversion of the Aristotelian Paradigm
Lucrezia Marinelli and La Nobiltà Ed Eccellenza Delle Donne
Cross-References
References
J
Jesuit Philosophy
Introduction
Three Waves of Jesuit Philosophy
The Identity of Jesuit Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Jesuit Psychology, Early Modern
Synonyms
Introduction
``Loci Communes´´: Towards Modern Philosophy
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Jordanus Brunus Nolanus, Nolan
Juice of Life
K
Karl von Linné
Kepler, Johannes
Introduction
Kepler´s Foundational Commitments
Kepler´s Trinitarian Cosmology
Kepler´s Geometrical Archetypes
Kepler´s Empiricism
Kepler´s Realism
Kepler and Harmony
Kepler´s Astronomy
Kepler as Copernican
Kepler´s Physical Astronomy
Kepler´s Astrology
Kepler and the Optical Part of Astronomy
Kepler´s Short Works
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Kircher, Athanasius
Definition/Introduction
Athanasius Kircher´s Life and Thought
Cross-References
References
Knowledge
Knowledge in Early Modern Philosophy
Reference Point: The Aristotelian Ideal of Knowledge
Under the Spell of scientia
Between Old and New Ideals: Newton
Freeing Knowledge from Metaphysics: Berkeley and Hume
Cross-References
References
Knowledge Management
L
L´Organisation du savoir
La Mettrie, Julien Offray de
Introduction
Life and Work
Ideas
Key Works
Cross-References
References
Language and Its Theories in the Early Modern Era
Synonyms
Introduction
Simplified Aristotelian Language Theory (SALT)
The Cartesian Turn
Building from Locke
Cross-References
References
Language, Mind, and Logic in Early Modern Philosophy: An Introduction
References
Law of Action and Reaction, The
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Action/Reaction and Newton´s Third Law of Motion
Cross-References
References
Law of Inertia
Synonyms
Definition
History of the Law of Inertia
Cross-References
References
Law of Nature
Laws of Nature
Synonyms
Introduction
Origins of the New Seventeenth-Century Concept: René Descartes
Descartes´s Legacy: Laws of Nature in Early Modern Natural Philosophy
Laws of Nature in the Enlightenment
Cross-References
References
Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van
Introduction
Leeuwenhoek´s Life and Career as an Observer
Observations of the Sub-visible World
Leeuwenhoek´s Legacy
Cross-References
References
Leibniz, Doctrine of Force
Definition/Introduction
The Intricacies of Leibnizian Force
Cross-References
References
Leibniz´s Philosophy
Introduction
First Principles
Perceptions
Substances
Space and Time
Physics
Organisms
Theodicy
Freedom
References
Leiden University
Leurechon, Jean
Alternative names
Biography
Bibliography
Importance and Influence
Cross-References
References
Libau, Andreas
Libavius, Andreas
Synonyms
Introduction
Life and Works
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Liberality
Liberty, Women on
Synonyms
Introduction
Metaphysical, Moral, and Political Liberty
Margaret Cavendish
Mary Astell
Sarah Chapone
Cross-References
References
Life as Concept and as Science in Early Modern Thought
Introduction
Life as Concept or as Scientific Object: The Problem
Life Science
Ontology of Life
Two Stories About Mechanism
a) Mechanism: Expansionist or Puppet Régime?
b) Heuristic Mechanism
c) Whither Mechanism?
Do You See This Egg?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Life, Mechanization of
Synonyms
Introduction
Mechanization of Life Versus Living Things
Living Things and Mechanism
Living Things as Mechanical Automata
Causal Loops and the Circulation of Blood
The Source of Motive Power and the Heartbeat
Mechanical Automata in Mechanist Ontologies
Mechanical Automata Outside Mechanist Ontologies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Lifeblood
Light, Mechanization of
Introduction
Kepler´s Optics and the Demise of the Scholastic Theories of Light
Mechanical Light Theories in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century
Corpuscularian Versus Wave Theories of Light
Cross-References
References
Linnaeus, Carl
Synonyms
Introduction
Biography
Natural Philosophy
Systema Naturæ
Œconomia Naturæ
Cross-References
References
Literati
Locke
Locke and Mechanism
Definition/Introduction
Varieties of Mechanism
The Form of an Ideal Science
Cohesion and Impulse
Gravity
Further Epistemic Issues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Locke´s Epistemology
Locke´s Metaphysics
Locke´s Natural Philosophy
Locke´s Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Epistemology
Metaphysics
Cross-References
References
Locke-Stillingfleet Controversy
Introduction
Historical Background of the Controversy
Trinitarian Debates
Locke´s Essay´s Fundamental Epistemological Principles
The Controversy
The Beginning of the Controversy
The Letters and Topics of the Controversy
Toland´s Silence
Implications of the Controversy
Cross-References
References
Logic in Early Modern Thought
Introduction
Reflection on the Nature of Logic and Critique of Authority: Renaissance Reformism
The Epistemological Turn: Early Modern Rationalists and Empiricists
Logic or the Art of Thinking (The Logic of Port-Royal)
Leibniz´s Conception of Logic: The Development of the Rationalist Path
Abbreviations
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Longitude, Early Modern Europe
Definition
The Quest for Longitude in Early Modern Europe
Cross-References
References
M
Magic in the Seventeenth Century
Synonyms
Introduction
A Historiographical Note
Ancient and Mediaeval Heritage
Magic in the Early Modern Period
Classifications of Magic
Natural and Demonic Magic
Learned and Popular Magic
Other Classifications of Magic
Magical Theories
Occult Qualities and Active Powers
Sympathy and Antipathy
Correspondences and the Signatura Rerum Theory
Borders Between Magic and Other Disciplines
Magic and Natural Philosophy
Magic and Religion
Magic and the Other Occult Sciences
Magic and Witch Trials
Decline of Magic
Cross-References
References
Magnanimity
Magnetism, Mechanical Philosophy
Introduction: The Problem of Magnets
Magnetic Mechanisms
Limits of Magnetic Mechanisms
Cross-References
References
Malebranche, Nicolas
Introduction
A Cartesian Heritage
Embryology
Laws of Motion, Optics, and Mathematics
Beyond Descartes: New Hypotheses and New Methods
Malebranche and the Infinitesimal Calculus
Attempts to Reform Cartesian Physical Hypotheses
How to Correct the Cartesian Laws of Motion
An Innovative Optics
Cross-References
References
Mandeville, Bernard
Introductory: Paradox, Scandal, and Economy
Mandeville in the Twenty-First Century: A Full-Size Philosopher
Dutch Background and Early Works: Poems, The Virgin Unmask´d, and The Female Tatler
The Treatise (1711)
The Fable of the Bees (1714)
The Fable of the Bees (1723) and Fame
The Dialogues Between Horatio and Cleomenes: Fable 1729
The Dialogues Between Horatio and Cleomenes: Honour 1732
Mandeville´s Influence
References
Manner
Manners
Maquette
Marine Invertebrates, Natural History of
Synonyms
Introduction
Zoophytes and Polyps
Shellfish and Crustaceans
References
Marquise Du Châtelet-Laumont
Matematica Media
Materia, Materies
Material Flows in Early Modern History of Science and Technology: A Theoretical and Methodological Introduction
Synonyms
Introduction
Materials en Vogue
Materiality as a Conceptual Approach
Objects and Substances
Materials on the Move
Materials as a Source of Knowledge
Cross-References
References
Materialism
Definition/Introduction
Materialism and Mechanism
Ways of Materialist Explanation
Forms of Materialism
Sources of Materialism
References
Materiality
Mathematica universalis
Mathematical Proof
Mathematical Training
Mathesis generalis
Mathesis universalis
Synonyms
Introduction
A Venerable Term
The Role of the Quaestio de certitudine
Mathesis universalis and Symbolic Algebra
Mathesis universalis in Descartes
Mathesis universalis in Leibniz
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Matter
Matter Theory
Matter-Form (Hylomorphism) in Early Modern Alchemy
Synonyms
Introduction
Heritage and Rupture with the Tradition
Cross-References
References
Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de
Introduction
The Shape of the Earth
The Principle of Least Action
Theory of Generation
See Also
References
Mechanical Hypothesis
Mechanical Natural Philosophy
Mechanical Philosophies
Introduction
The Mechanical Philosophy as a Historiographical Category
Mechanical Philosophy as an Actor´s Category
Mechanical Philosophies and Mechanisms
Cross-References
References
Mechanical Philosophy
Mechanical Philosophy: An Introduction
Definition
Detailed Description
Cross-References
References
Mechanical Philosophy: Reductionism and Foundationalism
Introduction
The Internal Problems of Reductionist Explanation in Mechanical Philosophy
The Synthesis of Reductionism and Foundationalism
The Independence of Reductionism and Foundationalism
Cross-References
References
Mechanical Philosophy: Science of Mechanics
Synonyms
Introduction: From the Science of Mechanics to the Mechanical Philosophy
Mechanical Causes
Forms of Mechanical Intelligibility
The Double Role of the Law of the Lever
Solving New Problems in Mechanics
Newton´s Principia: Redefining Physical Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mechanical Theory
Mechanicism
Mechanics and Mixed Mathematics in Early Modern Philosophy: An Introduction
Definition
Detailed Description
Cross-References
Mechanism
Mechanism and Chemistry in Early Modern Natural Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Mechanism and Early Modern Chemistry
Robert Boyle and the Mechanical Philosophy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mechanism in Eighteenth-Century German Philosophy
Introduction
Mechanism and Fatalism
Mechanism and Materialism
Cross-References
References
Mechanism: Mathematical Laws
Introduction: The Irony of Mathematical Mechanical Laws
Mechanical Reduction and Geometrical Proportions
The Crystallization of Mathematical Mechanical Laws
The Reform of Descartes´ Physics and the Mathematization of Mechanics
The Distribution of Motion in Corporeal Collision
The Conservation of the Quantity of Motion
The Inherent Properties of Bodies
Conclusion: From Machines to Laws
Cross-References
References
Medical Experimentation
Medical Materialism, Early Modern
Introduction
Medical Materialism and Philosophical Materialism
The Doctor as Atheist: An Ancient Idea
Strands of Medical Materialism: Cartesians, Spinozists, and Others
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Medical Methodology
Introduction
The Decline of the Medical Arts and the Return to the Ancient Methodus Medendi
Knowledge of Nature and the Critique of Systematic Thinking
Effectiveness of Treatment Versus Fruitless Speculations
Ordering Knowledge, Comparing Information, and the Contingency of Nature
Cross-References
References
Medical Teaching
Medicine and Economics in Early Modern Thought
Introduction
Medicine and Economics
Cross-References
References
Medicine and Travel in the Colonies (1600-1750)
Synonyms
Introduction
Medicine and Travel in the Colonies
Local Knowledge Versus Imperial Science
Medical Nexuses from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Acclimatization
Conclusion: The Biology of Physical Nature
Cross-References
References
Medicine in the Early Modern Period: An Introduction
Definition
Detailed Description
References
Melancholia
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Characteristics
Medical Rationale
Melancholy and Genius
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Melancholy
Memory in the Early Modern Context: Practices and Theories
Synonyms
Introduction
Early Modern Models of Memory
Arts of Memory
Critiques of the Mnemonic Arts
Memory and Memorization
Conclusion: The Decline of the Prestige of Memory
Cross-References
References
Mental Capacity
Mental Disease in Early Modern Medicine: The Case of Hysteria
Background
The Seat of Hysteria Moves from the Womb to the Brain
The Sensitivity of the Nervous System as the Cause of Hysteria
Cartesian Psychology
Sydenham, Willis, and Boyle on the Mechanical Causes of Hysteria
Descartes on the Effect of Early Childhood Experiences
Eighteenth-Century Mechanistic Accounts of Hysteria and Hypochondria
Hermann Boerhaave´s Dualism
Boerhaave on Mental Diseases
Conclusion
References
Mental Faculties in Early Modern Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Early Modern Critique of Faculties
Mental Faculties in Early Modern Epistemology
Early Modern Theories of the Metaphysics of Faculties
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mereology
Mersenne, Marin
Introduction
Life
Mersenne´s First Writings: Apologetic Outcomes and Sceptical Issues
Defending Catholic Orthodoxy Against Heretics and Impious
Mitigated Scepticism
Music Between Metaphysics and Experiments
The 1634 Treatises
Astronomical Affairs
The Universal Harmony
A Long-Life Commitment: Discovering and Praising Universal Harmony
The Utility of Harmony
Experimentalism
Nouvelles Pensées: Reliability of Experimental Reports?
The Forties: Questioning Atomism and the Void
Marin Mersenne´s Published and Unpublished Works
Cross-References
References
Metallurgy
Metals
Metaphysics
Metaphysics and Laws of Nature in Early Modern Philosophy: An Introduction
References
Method
Method As a Conceptual Genre in Early Modern Philosophy
Definition/Introduction
Method As a Conceptual Genre
Introduction
The Concept of Method in the Early Modern Period
General Coordinates
Analysis and Synthesis As the Two Basic Terms of the Conceptual Genre of Method
Bacon´s Revision of ``methods´´
Bacon´s Approach to Method
Elements of Bacon´s Methodic Approach
Induction
Instruments
Experientia Literata
Natural History
Cartesian Method
General Issues
The Four ``maxims´´ of Cartesian Method
Mathesis Universalis
The Concept of Method After Descartes
The Gradual Weakening of the Concept of Method
From Method to Criticism, Education, and ``methodology´´: John Locke
Cross-References
References
Methods
Microscopy in Early Modern Natural Philosophy
Introduction
The Corpuscularian Tool
The Introduction of Microscopes
Microscopy and Plant Anatomy
Microscopy and Generation Theory
Microscopy and Human Understanding
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mind
Mind and Cognition, Early Modern Theories
Synonyms
Introduction
Sources of Early Modern Theories of Mind and Cognition
Theories of Cognition in a Peripatetic Perspective
The Canonical View of Cognitive Psychology
Discussions of Illumination and Abstraction
The Agent Intellect Questioned
Two ``Independent´´ Positions: Bovelles and Fracastoro
Seventeenth-Century Views on Mind and Cognition: Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, Malebranche
Eighteenth-Century Developments: Locke, Leibniz, Hume, Kant
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mind-Body Problems
Introduction
Changes in Mind: The Emergence of Cartesian Dualism
Puzzles Old and New: Unity and Interaction
The Search for Answers: Rethinking the Mind Body-Relationship
The No-Interaction Approach
Dualism: New and Improved
Mind, Body, and the Self
The Rise of Materialism
Esse est percipere? Immaterialism and Idealism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mineralogy
Synonyms
Introduction
The History of Mineralogy
Cross-References
References
Mining
Mining Knowledge
Miracles
Synonyms
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Sources (in English Translation)
Mixed Mathematics
Mixed Sciences
Mnemonics
Models and Knowledge Production: Mechanical Arts, Natural Philosophy, and the State in Early Modern Europe
Synonyms
Introduction
Definition and Early Usages
Etymology
Appearance in Early Modern Dictionaries
Appearance in Early Modern Architectural Literature
Models in Architectural Practice
Evidence of Use in Different Fields and Disciplines
Astronomy, Cartography, and Fortifications
Shipbuilding
Models of Machines
Anatomy
Models as In-Between Objects
Cross-References
References
Modern Philosophy
Modes, Early Modern Ontology
Synonyms
Introduction
Modes: Their Ontological Status and Their Metaphysical Functions
Modes in Late Scholastic Ontology
The Heyday of Modes: Descartes
Spinoza on Modes
Some Later Developments and the Slow Decline of Modes
Cross-References
References
Modification
Molyneux Problem (Language)
Synonyms
Definition
The Question and Its Background
Locke´s Answer to Molyneux
The First Empirical Evidence: Cataract Surgery
Popularizing the Question: Voltaire, Diderot, and After
Cross-References
References
Monad
Monads and Monadology in Early Modern Philosophy and the Sciences
Introduction
Monads Before Monadology
Leibniz´s Monadology
The Early Reception of Monadology
Physical Monadologies and Newtonianism
Monadology in Kantian Criticism
Returns of the Monad
Cross-References
References
Monsters in Early Modern Philosophy
Introduction
The Problem of Monsters
Early Modern Philosophical Discussions of Monsters
Early Modern Anatomico-metaphysical Debates on Monsters
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Moral Philosophy
Moral Philosophy in the Scottish Enlightenment
Moral Standards
Mosaic Physics
Music and Discovery
Music and Musical Instruments as Sites of Knowledge in the Early Modern Era
Synonyms
Introduction
Musical Instruments and Instrumental Music as Spaces for the Production of Knowledge
Musical Instruments and Scientific Thought in the Early Modern Era
Instrumental Music and Representation
Musical Amateurism and Public Science in the Eighteenth Century
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Music Technology/-ies
Musical Experience
Musical Inventions
Mutation
Mydorge, Claude
Alternative Names
Biography
Bibliography
Importance and Influence
References
N
Natural History in Early Modern Philosophy: An Introduction
Definition
Detailed Description
References
Natural History of Animals
Natural History of Cetaceans
Natural Kinds
Natural Law
Synonyms
Introduction
Surez, Grotius, and Hobbes
Pufendorf, Thomasius, and Locke
Natural Law in the Eighteenth Century
Cross-References
References
Natural Order
Natural Theology
Synonyms
Definition
Natural Theology
Cross-References
References
Nature
Nature and Immortality of the Soul
Synonyms
Introduction
The Problem of Immortality
The Modern Setting: Philosophical and Theological Controversies Around Aristotle´s On the Soul (Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centur...
From Philosophical Truth to Ideal of Reason: Decline of a Problem (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Century)
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Nature and Taxonomy, Systems of
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Systems and Taxonomies
The Variety of Systems
Artificial and Natural Systems
Essentialism
The Specificity of Early Modern Taxonomies
The Classificatory Mind
The Lack of a Communal Experience
Abstraction from the Environment
The Overload of Information and the Terminological Confusion
The Effect of Printing
Cultural, Religious, and Political Aspects of Taxonomies
Colonialism
The Place of Humans and Racism
Linguistic Imperialism
Gender
Religion
Cross-References
References
Naturel
Natursprache
Necessitarian Theology
Necessity
Nerves and the Mind
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
A `Nervous History´: Pipes, Reservoirs, Ropes, and Jars
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Nervus
Neuron
New Philosophy
New Science
Newton
Newton and Berkeley
Definition/Introduction
What Is Natural Philosophy?
Mathematical Hypotheses
Space
Cross-References
References
Newton and Chronology
Introduction
The Place of Chronology in the Newtonian Corpus
Cross-References
References
Newton and Chymistry
Definition/Introduction
Newton and ``Chymistry´´
Cross-References
References
Newton and Descartes
Introduction
Newton and Descartes
Cross-References
References
Newton and Hume
Introduction
Experimentalism and Criticism of Hypotheses
Force and Causation
Space and Time
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Newton and Leibniz
Introduction
Similarities and Differences Between Newton and Leibniz
Methodology
Space and Motion
Gravitation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Newton and Locke
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mutual Influence
Cross-References
References
Newton and Spinoza
Introduction
God Cannot Create Space
The Nature of Space or Extension
Fear of Necessitarianism
Methodology and Final Causes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Newton and the Cambridge Platonists
Introduction
Physiology and Atomism
Gravity, Spirits, and Hypotheses
Space
Cross-References
References
Newton´s Methodology
Introduction
Newton´s Methodology
Experimental Versus Speculative Philosophy
Baconian Induction
Demonstrative Induction
Universal Induction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Newton´s Theology
Newton´s Theology Today and in His Own Time
Revelation: Newton´s Unpublished Theological Manuscripts
Situating Newton in the Early Modern Period
Issues in Theology
Theology in Seventeenth-Century England
Newton´s Early Encounters with Theology
Church History
The Original Religion
Doctrine
Textual Criticism
Issues in Prophetic Exegesis
Biblical Prophecy and Millenarian Eschatology
The Language of the Prophets
The Importance of Prophecy
The Second Coming, the Temple, and the Jewish Restoration
God and Natural Philosophy
The Relationships Between Science and Religion
Philosophical Theology
The Hermeneutics of Accommodation
Ancient Priests of Nature
Natural Theology
Newton´s Dynamic Cosmos
Theology, Prophecy, and Science in Newton´s Thought
Newton´s Theology in the Eighteenth Century
Cross-References
Manuscript References
References
Newton´s Third Law of Motion
(Newton´s) First Law
Newtonianism and the Life Sciences
Introduction
Newtonianism in Eighteenth-Century Life Sciences
The Tory Newtonians and Newtonian Physiology
Physico-theology and the Order of Nature
The Gravitation Analogy for New Forces
Cross-References
References
Newtonianism in Britain
Introduction
Newtonian Medicine and Physiology
Newtonianism and Electricity
Newtonianism and the ``Science of Man´´
Newtonianism and Laws of Nature
Cross-References
References
Newtonianism on the Continent
Summary and Definition
From Newton to Newtonianism
Newton´s Continental Readers, Editors, and Translators
The Rise and Fall of Newtonianism as a Philosophy
The Breadth of Newtonianism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Newtonianism: An Introduction
Introduction
Newtonianism and the Sciences
Cross-References
References
Notables
Notae
Note-Taking and the Organization of Knowledge
Synonyms
Introduction
Paper Technology
Humanist Origins
New Manuscript Models
Cross-References
References
Notional Philosophy
Novatores
Novatores: Rejecting Aristotle and Forging a New Philosophy in the Seventeenth Century
Synonyms
Introduction
Aristotle and Aristotelianism
Novatores and Modern Philosophy
Cross-References
References
O
Objects
Obligation (in Language Use)
Cross-References
References
Occasional Causes
Occasionalism: Causation and Divine Action in Early Modern Philosophy and Science
Synonyms
Introduction
Early Modern Occasionalism
Canonical Early Modern Occasionalist Authors and Arguments
Impact and Reactions
Ethical and Nomological Implications of Occasionalism
Cross-References
References
Oldenburg, Henry
Synonyms
Introduction
Oldenburg the Communicator, or, the Story of the Roles that Both Reinforced and Clashed with Each Other
Intelligencer
Secretary of the Royal Society
Editor of Philosophical Transactions
The Final Clash of Roles: Oldenburg´s Achievement in Perspective
References
Ontogenesis
Open-Mindedness/Broad-Mindedness
Opobalsamum
Oratory
Organicism
Oryctognosy
P
Paleontology, Early Modern
Introduction
Fossil Objects and Early Modern Practices
Fossils as Wonders
Renaissance Museums and Classifications
From ``Culture of Curiosity´´ to Natural History
Interpretations of Fossil Objects
Fossils as Figured Stones
The Medicinal Properties of Fossil Objects
The Generation of Stones
Fossils as Organic Remains
Bernard Palissy´s Observations
Italian Naturalists and the Identifications of Fossils
Leibniz´s Interpretation of Fossils
Fossils and Theories of the Earth
``Medals of the Deluge´´
Fossils as Evidence against the Biblical Deluge
``The Dark Abyss of Time´´: Buffon´s Observations and Experiments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Pantomathesis
Particular
Pascal, Blaise
Introduction
Pascal´s Work
Cross-References
References
Patience
Pattern
Pedagogical Grammar
Permissiveness
Perrault, Claude
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Person/Self
Personal Identity
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Against the Substance View
Persons as Agents
Testimony and Personal Identity
The Bundle Self
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Abbreviations
Cited Literature
Petty, William
Introduction
Petty´s Works and Significance
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Phantasy
Philosophical and Physiological Accounts of the Mind in the Scottish Enlightenment
Introduction
Mechanism and Its Dissolution
Vitalistic Accounts
Cullen´s Synthesis
Physiology and Moral Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Philosophical Language
Philosophical Transactions
Definition/Introduction
Philosophical Transactions
Cross-References
References
Philosophy at the Berlin Academy
Introduction
The Prize Competition on Monads of 1746
Maupertuis and Teleology
Dispute over the Least Action
The Science of Living Beings
Cross-References
References
Phlogiston
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Stahl´s Teaching on Phlogiston
Development of the Notion of Phlogiston after Stahl
Cross-References
References
Physica Sacra
Physicotheology
Physiognomy
Introduction
Physiognomy in the Ancient World
Early Modern Physiognomy
From Physiognomy to Pathognomy
Physiognomy in the Eighteenth Century
Cross-References
References
Pinhole Camera
Pitcairne, Archibald
Introduction
Pitcairne´s Life and Works
Projects for a Mathematical Medicine
Legacy and Influence
Cross-References
References
Plattes, Gabriel
Introduction
Plattes´s Experimental and Ameliorative Projects
Plattes´s Projects of Natural Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Pneuma
Polymath - virtuoso
Polyps
Popular Mathematics
Port-Royal, Nuns of
Synonyms
Introduction
Angélique Arnauld
Agnès Arnauld
Angélique de Saint-Jean Arnauld d´Andilly
Jacqueline Pascal
Cross-References
References
Postmortem
Poulain de la Barre, François (1647-1723)
Introduction
Biography
Main Ideas
References
Practice
Practices
Prescriptions
Primary and Secondary Qualities in Early Modern Philosophy
Introduction
Galileo on ``Primary Properties´´ of Bodies
The Distinction in Descartes
Boyle and the ``Primary Affections´´ of Bodies
Locke on Primary and Secondary Qualities
Conclusion: Unresolved Issues
Cross-References
References
Primates
Prime Matter in Late Aristotelian and Early Modern Philosophy
Introduction
Prime Matter in Late Aristotelian Philosophy
Prime Matter in the Philosophy of Descartes and Novatores
Cross-References
References
Princess Elisabeth of the Palatinate
Principle of Inflammability
Principle of Least Action
Introduction
Leibniz
Maupertuis
Euler
The Controversy
Epilogue
References
Principle of Sufficient Reason
Introduction
Proponents
Spinoza
Leibniz
Du Châtelet
Contemporary Proponents
The PSR in Contemporary Debates
Intelligibility
Reality Without Distinctions
Fundamentality
Cross-References
References
Principles in Early Modern Philosophy and Science
Introduction
Propositional Principles and the Acquisition of Scientific Knowledge
Principle Specificity
Principle Demonstrability
Epistemic Status of Principles
Types of Propositional Principles
Ontological Principles, Essences, and Causes
Principles and the Theory of Demonstration
Principles and the Theory of the Sciences
Criticisms and Developments Within the Theory of Principles
References
Principles of Matter
Productivity
Projectors
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Protomathesis
Psychology and Ethics
Synonyms
Introduction
Ethics in Early Modernity
Psychology in Early Modernity
A Case Study in the Early Modern Psychology-Ethics Relationship: Cambridge Platonism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Psychology and Theology in the History of Early Modern Philosophy
Introduction
Interactions Between Theology and Psychology
The Immortality of the Soul
Reformation Criticism of Habitus and Virtue
Freedom and Bondage of the Will
Inner Struggle
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Psychology in the Early Modern Period
Synonyms
Introduction
Scientia de anima and Early Modern Psychology
Early Modern Psychology as Scientia
The Status of Psychology
Psychologia, Anthropologia, and Confessionalization
The Word Psychologia
Continuity and Transformation
Cross-References
References
Psychology in the German Context
Definition/Introduction
Psychology in the German Context
Early German Psychology
Wolff´s Empirical and Rational Psychology
The Decline of Rational Psychology
The Ascendance of Empirical Approaches to the Soul
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pufendorf, Samuel von
Introduction
Pufendorf´s Life and Works
Cross-References
References
Puissance, Power
Purposiveness
Q
Quacks
Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes
Synonyms
Definition
General Aspects
The Prelude to the Querelle in Italy and France
1687: The Beginning of the Querelle
The Translations Querelle
The Quarrel and the Other Arts
A Look at the Querelle Outside of France
Cross-References
References
Querelle des Classiques et des Modernes
Querelle des Femmes
Introduction
Origins of the querelle des femmes
Authors and Works
Philosophical Themes
Cross-References
References
Primary
Secondary
R
Ramist Philosophy of Nature
Ramist Physics
Synonyms
Introduction
Ramism as a Historiographical Category
Natural Philosophy and Ramus´s Three Laws
Physics as a General Discipline: Copius and Scribonius
Physics as a Special Discipline: Beurhaus and Snellius
General and Special Physics: Freigius
Against Ramus: Timpler
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ramus and Ramism
Definition/Introduction
Biography
General Characteristics of Ramus´ Work
Critic of Aristotelianism and Views on Method
Ramism
Conclusion: The Questionable Fate of Ramism
Cross-References
References
Rational Mechanics, The Creation of
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Background
A Program for Rational Mechanics
Rational Mechanics and Metaphysics
Principles
Rational Mechanics and Mathematics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rational Soul
Rationalist Theology
Rationality
Rays
Reading Practices in Early Modern Period
Definition
Reading Practices in Early Modern Europe
Cross-References
References
Real Character
Reason and Experience in Women´s Responses to Descartes and Locke
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Reason and Experience in Feminist Historians of the Early Modern Period
Reason and Experience in Women Philosophers of the Early Modern Period
Reason and Experience in Elizabeth of Bohemia
Reason and Experience in Margaret Cavendish
Reason and Experience in Anne Conway and Mary Astell
Reason and Experience in Damaris Masham and Catharine Trotter Cockburn
Cross-References
References
Reason and Rationality, Early Modern Period
Introduction
Reason and Rationality: Core Issues
Reason and Free Will
Reason and Language
Reason and the Experience of the External World
Hume and the Challenge to Reason
Cross-References
References
Reason and Revelation in Early Modern Protestant Thought
Introduction
Revelation
Revelation More Thoroughly Considered
Revelation Versus Tradition in the Reformation
Revelation Versus Tradition in the Roman Catholics
Reason
Reason and Revelation
Revelation´s Need of Reason
Taxonomy of Propositions and Doctrines Vis-à-Vis Reason
Examples of the Different Positions on the Relationship of Reason and Revelation Delineated Above
Scholastics
The So-Called Deists
Other Related Issues
Enthusiasm
The Place of Tradition in Protestantism
Reasoned Scrutiny of Biblical Texts
Issues of Interpretation: Quadriga
Cross-References
References
Recipes in the Early Modern Period
Synonyms
Definition
The Fuzzy Concept of a Recipe
Recipes as an Actor´s Category
Making it Work: What Defines a Recipe?
The Imperative Text
Ingredients
Procedures
Outcomes
Recipes, Reconstructions, and the Move Towards a History of Knowledge
Cross-References
References
Recollection
Recreational Mathematics
Synonyms
Definition
Heritage and Rupture with the Tradition
Classifications
Cross-References
References
Regius, Henricus
Definition
Introduction
Life and Works
Cartesian Medicine
Anti-Cartesian Metaphysics and Epistemology
Cross-References
References
Relation Soul/Powers
Religious Controversies in Doctrinal Context
Synonyms
Introduction
Major Movements
The Reformation
The Post-Reformation Era
Minor Movements
The Rise of Arminianism and the Remonstrant Controversy
The Socinianism Controversy and Related Heterodox Positions
The Rise of Deism or Natural Religion
Other Religious Controversies
Cartesian Dualism and Responses to It
Metaphysical Liberty Versus Necessity
Innate Ideas
Miracles as the Evidentiary Basis of Divine Revelation
The Doctrine of the Holy Trinity
Denominations Versus Sects
Cross-References
References
Reptiles in Early Modern Culture and Natural Philosophy
Synonyms
Definition
The Natural History of Reptiles
Cross-References
References
Republic of Letters
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Resolutio
Resurrection
Rhetoric and Psychology
Synonyms
Introduction
The Background of the Early Modern Art of Rhetoric
Persuasion and the Workings of the Human Mind
Nature: Logical Truth or Probable Knowledge?
Topoi and Tropes: The Places of Arguments, Twists, and Turns of Speech
New Literary Forms in Dangerous Times
The Uses of Historia and the Antecedents of Empiricism
(E)motions: Rhetoric and the Workings of the Human Passions
References
Rohault, Jacques
Introduction
Rohault´s Works and Significance
Rohault´s Treatise on Mechanics
Cross-References
References
Royal Observatory at Greenwich
Definition/Introduction
The Royal Observatory, Greenwich
Cross-References
References
Rule
Rules
S
´s Gravesande´s Foundations for Mechanics
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Sabuco de Nantes Barerra, Oliva
Introduction
Empiricist Methodology
Evidentiary Value of Summary Data
Longitudinal and Population Studies
Medicine Modeled on Human Nature
Hylomorphism
Holism
Restrained Reliance upon Traditional Medical Theories
Abandoning ``Final Cause´´ in Medical Diagnoses and Prognoses
Minimizing Use of Humeric Theories
Organ Function, Not Symmetry or Asymmetry
Female and Male As ``Normal Human´´
Natural As Normal
The Four-Part Tripartite Soul
Operations of the Rational Soul As Mind: Role of the Brain
Mind As the Motion of Matter
Summary/Conclusion
References
Salonnières, Les
Introduction
Salon Philosophers
Madeleine de Souvré, Marquise de Sablé
Antoinette du Ligier de la Garde, Madame Deshoulières
Anne-Thérèse Marguenat de Courcelles, Marquise de Lambert
Philosophical Caricature
Cross-References
References
Sanctorius
Sanguine Humor
Santorio, Sanctorius
Synonyms
Introduction
Life
Legacy
References
Science and Technology in Early Modern Warfare
Introduction
The Science of Weapons
The Science of Gunners
Furor Mechanicus
Military Architecture and the Science of War
The Perfect Soldier
Cross-References
References
Science of Mechanics
Science of Motion
Science of the Soul
Science of Weights (scientia de ponderibus)
Scientia mathematica communis
Scientiæ mediæ
Scientific Images/Pictures/Illustrations
Scientific Revolution, Ideologies of the
Introduction
Ideologies of the Scientific Revolution: Rise and Fall of a Historiographical Concept
Genesis and Development of the Scientific Revolution
The End of a Paradigm
Past and Present
Cross-References
References
Scientific Societies
Scottish Moral Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
The Attempt at a Moral Calculus
Qualitative Analysis of Human Nature
Arguing from Common Sense
Natural Histories of Morals
Cross-References
References
Second Nature
Secrets
Sectarianism
Sectio
Seeds (semina) in Early Modern Natural Philosophy
Introduction
Major Trends
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Semiotics, Early Modern
Synonyms
Introduction
Late Scholastics on ``Formal Signs´´: The Traditional Framework
Words and Ideas: The Oblique Semiotics
Bayle, Gassendi, and Hobbes: The Modern Break
Cross-References
References
Sennert, Daniel
Introduction
Sennert´s Work and Influence
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Sensation
Sensation and Perception
Introduction
Ancient and Medieval Background
Early Modern Views
Peripatetic Perception Between Passion and Action
An Independent and a Platonic View
A Naturalist View
Nativist and Materialist Perspectives in Post-Scholastic Psychology of Perception
Eighteenth-Century Developments: Locke, Leibniz, Kant
Cross-References
References
Senses, Early Modern Theories of the
Introduction
The Mechanics of the Senses
Perceived and Perceiver
Sensation and Life
Cognition and the Senses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sensibility
Sensory Substitution
Serpents
Sexual Dimorphism and Hermaphroditism in Nature
Introduction
Background
Hippocratic Corpus
Aristotle
Galen
Anatomical Investigations
Fabric of the Human Body
Clitoris Disputes
Ovism and Ovaries
Lingering Questions
Hermaphrodites in Medical Literature
Monsters and Prodigies
Marin le Marcis
Plants and Lower Animals
Seventeenth-Century Discoveries
Linnaean Classification
Mechanical Philosophy
René Descartes on Sexual Differentiation
Doctrine of Preexistence
Teleological Mechanism
Cross-References
References
Shaftesbury and British Moral Thought
Introduction
Shaftesbury´s Moral Philosophy in Historical Context
Biography
Overview of Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times
Influence
Cross-References
References
Singular Thing
Skepticism in Early Modern Thought
Definition
Introduction
Between Renaissance and Early Modern Philosophy: Montaigne and Sanches
The Active Skeptic: Pierre Charron
Science and Skepticism: Campanella, Mersenne, and Gassendi
Descartes and Libertine Skepticism
The Debate on the ``Natural Beliefs´´: Malebranche, Arnauld, and Bayle
References
Smelting
Sociability
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Natural Sociability and Grotius´ appetitus societatis
Hobbes and the Political Control of Unsociability
Pufendorf´s Theory of Sociability
Historical Explanations of Sociability in the Eighteenth Century
Cross-References
References
Social Relationships
Sociality
Society-Women
Sorrow
Soul
Soul, Mind, and Passions in Early Modern Europe: Introduction
Definition/Scope of Field
Overview of Chapters in this Section
Other Related Sections and Chapters
Cross-References
References
Soul, Seat of the
Introduction
From the Scholastics to Vesalius
The Cartesian Turn
Metaphysical Controversies
Experimental Traditions and Physiological Hypotheses
Kant´s Critique and the Fate of the Seat of the Soul
Cross-References
References
Soul, The
Introduction
The Concept of the Soul as Form
Separability and Immortality of the Soul
Souls, Bodily Spirits, and Intelligent Spirits
From Soul to Mind
Cross-References
References
Space, Representations of
Definition
Justification of the Concept
Representations of Space in the Early Modern Period
Cross-References
References
Spaces for the Production of Knowledge and Practical Knowledge in Early Modern Philosophy: An Introduction
Detailed Description
Cross-References
References
Spagyria
Spanish Scholastics
Species
Species, Sensible, and Intelligible
Introduction
Renaissance Discussions
Modern Criticisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spinosa (L´Esprit de) or Traité Des Trois Imposteurs
Introduction
The Esprit de Spinosa and Spinosa
Cross-References
References
Spinoza
Introduction
Biography
Overview of the Ethics
Conclusion: Spinoza as a Political Thinker
Cross-References
References
Spinoza and Science
Introduction
Epistemology
Experience and Experiment
Mathematics
Regularities
Spinoza´s Physics
Conclusion
References
Spinoza´s Metaphysics
Introduction
Monism
The Attributes
Spinoza´s Metaphysical Method
Cross-References
References
Spinozism in Social Science
Introduction
A Geometry of Affects
Spinoza and Predictive Social Science
Spinoza and Nonnaturalistic Social Science
Cross-References
References
Spirits
Spontaneous Generation in Early Modern Philosophy and Science
Introduction
The Seeds of Spontaneous Generation in Premodern Thought
Aristotle on Spontaneous Generation
Epicureanism and the ``Semina Rerum´´
Stoic and Neoplatonist Seminal Reasons
Generation With and Without Seed in Renaissance Thought
Spontaneous Generation and Preexisting Seeds
Paracelsian and Sennertian Seeds
Spontaneous Generation Early Modern Atomism and Neo-Epicureanism
Preexistent Seeds and the Denial of Spontaneous Generation
Redi and Swammerdam
John Ray
René de Réaumur
Epigenesis and the Resurgence of Spontaneous Generation
Buffon on Spontaneous Generation
The Needham-Spallanzani-Debate
The Problem of the Intestinal Worms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stahl, Georg Ernst
Introduction
Stahl´s Works and Significance
Cross-References
References
Statics
Stoicism
Introduction
The Recovery of Stoicism
Seventeenth-Century France
Seventeenth-Century England
Germany and the Netherlands
British Enlightenment
European Enlightenment
Cross-References
References
Striving
Substance in Early Modern Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction
Alternatives and Abolition
Anthropomorphisms and Language
Metaphysical Revisionism
Science
Cross-References
References
Substances
Substantial Form
Substantival Space
Subterranean Geography
Sufferance
Sulfur
Surgery in Early Modern Medicine
Synonyms
Introduction
Definition and Scope
War Surgery
Humanist Surgery
Surgery, Anatomy and Mechanics
Cross-References
References
Sydenham, Thomas (1624-1689)
Introduction
Sydenham´s Life and Works
Sydenham´s Theory of Disease
Therapeutics
Medical Desiderata
Legacy
Cross-References
References
Syllogistic
Synonyms
Introduction
The nature of syllogistic
Aristotle´s Syllogistic
Sixteenth-Century Responses to Syllogistic
Seventeenth-Century Questioning of Deductive Reasoning
Cross-References
References
Sylvius, Franciscus (François or Frans dele Boë)
Introduction
Sylvius: Life and Works, Anatomy, Chymistry, Medical Practice, Natural Philosophy, and Legacy
Life and Major Works
Anatomy
Chymistry
Medical Practice
Experimentation and Natural Philosophy
Legacy
Cross-References
References
Sympathy
Sympathy in Early Modern Thought
Introduction
Ficino, Fracastro, and Cardano on Sympathetic Vibration
Mersenne, Kepler, and Fludd on the Divine Monochord
Bacon, Cavendish, and Leibniz on Action at a Distance and Causation
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Systematics
T
Talent
Techne
Technical Images
Technique in Early Modern Science and Philosophy
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Technique
The Roots of Technique
Technique in the Early Modern Period
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Technology
Technology Production
Teleology in Early Modern Philosophy and Science
Synonyms
Introduction and Background
Rejections of Teleology
Bacon
Hobbes and Descartes
Spinoza
Hume and Voltaire
Defenses of Extrinsic Teleology
Gassendi
Boyle
Leibniz and Wolff
Newton and Du Châtelet
Maupertuis and D´Alembert
Defenses of Immanent Teleology
Cavendish
Cudworth
Leibniz
Cross-References
References
Tendency
The Netherlands
Theodicy in the Early Modern Context
Introduction
The Early Modern Context
Descartes
Malebranche
Bayle
Leibniz
Enlightenment Figures: Pope, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Hume
References
Theologia Naturalis
Theological Debates
Theological Necessitarianism
Theological Rationalism
Theophrastus redivivus
Introduction: seventeenth-century clandestine atheism
The First Philosophical Treatise of Atheism
The Main Contents
Radical Libertinism
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Theories of Cognition
Theories of Reproduction
Theory of Language
Things
Thought
Time in Early Modern Philosophy and Science
Synonyms
Introduction
Scholastic Background
Renaissance Reaction
The Pendulum Clock
Absolute Versus Relational Time
God´s Relation to Time
Temporal Experience
Abbreviations
Cross-References
References
Toland and the Development of Irreligious Philosophy
Introduction
Life and Times
Christianity Not Mysterious
Letters to Serena
Pantheisticon
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Tolerance: Toleration
Synonyms
Introduction: Tolerance - Toleration
Looking Back on Tolerance
Coercion Questioned
Catholics and Reformers Addressing Toleration
Paladins of a Religious and Political Toleration in the Modern Age: Spinoza, Bayle, Locke
Toleration as Virtue: The Multicultural and Multireligious Dimension
Cross-References
References
Manuscripts
Toleration
Transformation
Travel Books
Travel Literature
Travel Writing and Early Modern Experimental Philosophy
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Travel Writing
Cross-References
References
U
Universal Grammar
Universal Language
Universal Language in Early Modern Philosophy: Between Naturalistic and Artificial Language Schemes
Synonyms
Introduction
Universal Languages
Naturalistic Language Schemes
Artificial Schemes
Universal Language and True Philosophy
Cognitive Aspects of Universal Language
Cross-References
References
Universal Mathematics
V
Van Helmont and Helmontianism
Introduction
J.B. Van Helmont and the Helmontian Current
Van Helmont´s Life and Works
Van Helmont´s Philosophy and Medicine
General Remarks on Helmontianism
Cross-References
References
Vegetation
Vis viva, Living Force
Vital Fluid
Vitalism in Early Modern Medical and Philosophical Thought
Synonyms
Introduction
Vitalism: A Problem of Definition
The Prehistory of Early Modern Vitalism
Early Modern Vital Matter Theories 1: Harvey and van Helmont
Early Modern Vital Matter Theories 2: Cavendish, Conway, and Glisson
Cavendish
Conway
Glisson
Early Modern Vital Matter Theories: Vitalism or Protovitalism?
Life, Chemistry, and the Soul: Stahl
Montpellier Vitalism
Hippocratism
Holism
Mechanism
Skeptical and Materialist Vitalism
Consequences of Vitalism
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Vivisection 1500-1800
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Revival of Vivisection in the Sixteenth Century
Vivisection Becomes an Experimental Practice
The Eighteenth Century: Refinement and Critique
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Voltaire, François-Marie d´Arouet
Introduction
Biography
Voltaire´s History of Philosophy and Philosophy of History
Voltaire, Châtelet, and the ``Newton Wars´´
Empiricism and Skepticism
Voltaire´s Metaphysics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Works by Voltaire
Collected Works
Secondary Sources
Voluntarism
Voluntarist Theology
Vortex Theories in the Early Modern Period
Introduction
Kepler and Descartes
After Descartes
The Development of Vortex Theories
``Small Vortices´´
The Twilight Years of Vortex Theories
Cross-References
References
Voyages of Discovery
W
Wallis, John (1616-1703): Communication, Controversy, and Scientific Practice in Early Modern England
Synonyms
Introduction
Wallis´s Scientific Career
The Early Years
Savilian Professor of Geometry
From Scientific Success to Controversy
Wallis and the Royal Society
Historical Studies and Classical Editions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Water Animals
Weight of Air
Whole-Parts Relations in Early Modern Philosophy
Synonyms
Introduction and Background
Descartes
Spinoza
Cavendish
Hobbes
Conway
Leibniz
Conclusive Remarks
Cross-References
References
Wilkins, John
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
John Wilkins
Main Scientific Legacy
Early Scientific Narratives
Early Life and Education
On Discovery of a New World (1638) and the Discovery of a World in the Moone (1640)
Mathematical Magick, or, the Wonders That May Be Performed by Mechanical Geometry (1648)
The Founding of the Royal Society
Oxford Experimental Club
Establishing the Royal Society of London
The Project of an Artificial Language
Early Reflections on Artificial Character in Mercury, or, the Secret and Swift Messenger (1641)
An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language (1668)
Cross-References
References
Will in Early Modern Philosophy
Introduction
Descartes and Cartesians
Thomas Hobbes
Spinoza and Leibniz
John Locke
David Hume
Thomas Reid
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Willis, Thomas (1621-1675)
Introduction
Willis´s Life
Willis´s Medical Thought and Natural Philosophy
Cross-References
References
Wit
Witchcraft
Wolff, Christian, and Early Modern Thought
Introduction
Life
Eclectic Background
Philosophy as Science
Three Kinds of Knowledge
Experiments, Mathematics, and the System of Truths
Philosophy and the Sciences
The Possible and the Actual
Mechanical Philosophy
Teleology and Physiology
Cross-References
References
Primary Literature
Secondary Literature
Women in Early Modern Philosophy and Science: An Introduction
Synonyms
Definition
Educated Women and Intellectual Engagement
Listing the Long Tradition
Universities, Academies, and Schools
Salons: Their Societal and Intellectual Functions
Correspondents and Translators
Bible Critiques
Rationalism and Experience
Natural Philosophy
Women in Science
Liberty and Equality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women Philosophers in the French Revolution (Gouges, Roland, Grouchy)
Introduction
Women and Gender in the French Revolution
Women´s Political Thought and Rousseau (500)
Three Women of the French Revolution
Olympe de Gouges
Marie-Jeanne Phlippon Roland
Sophie de Grouchy
Conclusion
References
Women Philosophers, Early Modern Philosophy
Women, Early Modern: Society and Sociability
Synonyms
Definition/Introduction
Society and Christine de Pizan´s Defense of Women
Women, the Philosophy of Love, and Male-Female Social Relations
The Influence of Neo-Platonism
The Influence of the Protestant Reformation
Madeleine de Scudéry on Friendship and Sensibility
Cross-References
References
Wonders
Words and Meanings
Work of the Hands
Z
Zoology, 16th-18th Centuries
Synonyms
Introduction
Origin and Use of the Term ``Zoology´´
The Position of Zoological Studies in the Classification of Sciences and in Scientific Institutions
The ``Zoologists´´ of the Early Modern Period
The Sources of Zoology in the Early Modern Period
The Practices of Zoology
Concepts and Debates
References
Zoophytes