Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface
Brief Contents
Detailed Contents
Part 1: An Introduction to Educational Research
Chapter 1: The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches
A Definition of Research and Its Importance
Research Adds to Our Knowledge
Research Improves Practice
Research Informs Policy Debates
Several Problems with Research Today
The Six Steps in the Process of Research
Identifying a Research Problem
Reviewing the Literature
Specifying a Purpose for Research
Collecting Data
Analyzing and Interpreting the Data
Reporting and Evaluating Research
The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research in Each of the Six Steps
Quantitative Research Characteristics
Qualitative Research Characteristics
Similarities and Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Important Ethical Issues in Conducting Research
Institutional Review Boards
Professional Associations
Ethical Practices throughout the Research Process
Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research
Solving Puzzles
Lengthening Your Attention Span
Learning to Use Library Resources
Writing, Editing, and More Writing
Key Ideas in the Chapter
The Definition and Importance of Educational Research
The Six Steps in the Process of Research
The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
The Types of Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research
The Important Ethical Issues
The Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Part 2: The Steps in the Process of Research
Chapter 2: Identifying a Research Problem
What Is a Research Problem, and Why Is It Important?
How Does the Research Problem Differ from Other Parts
of Research?
Can and Should Problems Be Researched?
Can You Gain Access to People and Sites?
Can You Find Time, Locate Resources, and Use Your Skills?
Should the Problem Be Researched?
How Does the Research Problem Differ in Quantitative
and Qualitative Research?
How Do You Write a “Statement of the Problem”
Section?
The Topic
The Research Problem
Justification of the Importance of the Problem
Deficiencies in What We Know
The Audience
What Are Some Strategies for Writing the “Statement of the
Problem” Section?
A Template
Other Writing Strategies
Examples of “Statement of the Problem” Sections
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’
Trust in School Principals Studies
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Define a Research Problem and Explain Its Importance
Distinguish between a Research Problem and Other Parts of Research
Criteria for Deciding Whether a Problem Can and Should Be Researched
The Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Problems
The Five Elements of a “Statement of the Problem” Section
Strategies Useful in Writing the “Statement of the Problem” Section
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Chapter 3: Reviewing the Literature
What Is a Literature Review, and Why Is It Important?
How Does the Literature Review Differ for Quantitative and Qualitative Studies?
What Are the Six Steps in Conducting a Literature
Review?
Identify Key Terms
Locate Literature
Critically Evaluate and Select the Literature
Organize the Literature
Synthesize the Literature
Write a Literature Review
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’
Trust in Principals Studies
Literature Review Analysis in a Quantitative Study
Literature Review Analysis in a Qualitative Study
Key Ideas in the Chapter
What Is a Review of the Literature, and Why Is It Important?
The Six Steps in Conducting a Literature Review
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Conducting Your Research
Chapter 4: Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses
What Are Purpose Statements, Research Questions,
Hypotheses, and Objectives?
The Purpose Statement
Research Questions
Hypotheses
Research Objectives
Why Are These Statements and Questions
Important?
How Do You Design Quantitative Purpose Statements,
Research Questions, and Hypotheses?
Specify Variables
The Family of Variables
Theories and Testing of Variables
Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
Writing Quantitative Research Questions
Writing Quantitative Hypotheses
How Do You Design Qualitative Purpose Statements and
Research Questions?
Differentiating between Quantitative and Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions
The Central Phenomenon in Qualitative Research
Emerging Processes in Qualitative Research
Writing Qualitative Purpose Statements
Writing Qualitative Research Questions
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust in
Principals Studies
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Distinguish among Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives
Know Why These Statements and Questions Are Important
Write Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
Write Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Conducting Your Research
Chapter 5: Collecting Quantitative Data
Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection
What Participants Will You Study?
Identify Your Unit of Analysis
Specify the Population and Sample
What Permissions Will You Need?
Obtain Different Types of Permissions
Obtain Informed Consent
What Are Your Options for Collecting Information?
Specify Variables from Research Questions and Hypotheses
Operationally Define Each Variable
Choose Types of Data and Measures
What Instrument Will You Use to Collect Data?
Locate or Develop an Instrument
Search for an Instrument
Criteria for Choosing a Good Instrument
How Will You Administer the Data Collection?
Standardization
Ethical Issues
Reexamining the Quantitative Parent Involvement Study
Key Ideas in the Chapter
State the Five Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data Collection
Identify How to Select Participants for a Study
Identify the Permissions Needed for a Study
List Different Options for Collecting Information
Locate, Select, and Assess an Instrument(s) for Use in Data Collection
Describe Procedures for Administering Quantitative Data Collection
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Conducting Your Research
Chapter 6: Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data
What Are the Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data
Analysis?
How Do You Prepare the Data for Analysis?
Score the Data
Determine the Types of Scores to Analyze
Select a Statistical Program
Input Data
Clean and Account for Missing Data
How Do You Analyze the Data?
Conduct Descriptive Analysis
Conduct Inferential Analysis
How Do You Report the Results?
Tables
Figures
Present Results
How Do You Interpret the Results?
Summarize the Major Results
Explain Why the Results Occurred
Advance Limitations
Suggest Future Research
Reexamining Data Analysis and Interpretation in the
Parent Involvement Study
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Identify the Steps in the Process of Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data
Preparing Your Data for Analysis
Analyzing the Data
Reporting the Results
Interpreting the Results
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Conducting Your Research
Chapter 7: Collecting Qualitative Data
What Are the Five Process Steps in Qualitative Data
Collection?
What Are the Different Purposeful Sampling Approaches
for Selecting Participants and Sites?
Purposeful Sampling
Sample Size or Number of Research Sites
What Types of Permissions Will Be Required to Gain
Access to Participants and Sites?
Seek Institutional Review Board Approval
Gatekeepers
What Types of Qualitative Data Will You Collect?
Observations
Interviews
Documents
Audiovisual Materials
What Procedures Will Be Used to Record Data?
Using Protocols
What Field and Ethical Issues Need to Be Anticipated?
Field Issues
Ethical Issues
Revisiting the Mothers’ Trust in Principals Qualitative
Study
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Five Process Steps in Collecting Data
Sampling Approaches to Selecting Participants and Sites
Permissions Required to Gain Access
Various Types of Qualitative Data to Collect
Procedures for Recording Data
Field Issues and Ethical Considerations in Data Collection
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Conducting Your Research
Chapter 8: Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data
What Are the Six Steps in Analyzing and Interpreting
Qualitative Data?
How Do You Prepare and Organize the Data for
Analysis?
Organize Data
Transcribe Data
Analyze by Hand or Computer
Use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software Programs
How Do You Explore and Code the Data?
Explore the General Sense of the Data
Code the Data
How Do You Use Codes to Build Description and
Themes?
Description
Themes
Layering and Interrelating Themes
How Do You Represent and Report Findings?
Representing Findings
Reporting Findings
How Do You Interpret Findings?
Summarize Findings
Convey Personal Reflections
Make Comparisons to the Literature
Offer Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
How Do You Validate the Accuracy of Your
Findings?
Reexamining Qualitative Data Analysis in the Mothers’
Trust in Principals Case Study
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Six Steps in the Process of Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data
Prepare and Organize the Data for Analysis
Explore and Code the Data
Coding to Build Description and Themes
Represent and Report Qualitative Findings
Interpret the Findings
Validate the Accuracy of the Findings
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Conducting Your Research
Chapter 9: Reporting and Evaluating Research
What Is a Research Report, and What Are Its Types?
What Audience Will Receive the Report?
What Are the Types of Research Reports?
How Should You Structure Your Report?
Look at the Physical Structure of Research Reports
Design an Appropriate Quantitative Structure
Design an Appropriate Qualitative Structure
How Do You Write in a Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly
Way?
Use Language That Reduces Bias
Encode Scholarly Terms into Your Research
Use Ethical Reporting and Writing of Research Results
Use an Appropriate Point of View
Balance Your Research and Content
Interconnect Sections for Consistency
Advance a Concise Title
How Do You Evaluate the Quality of Your Research?
Employ Appropriate Standards
Quantitative Standards
Qualitative Standards
Evaluate with a Process Approach
Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust in
Principals Studies
Key Ideas in the Chapter
The Purpose of a Research Report and Its Types
How to Structure Your Research Report
Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly Writing Practices
Criteria for Evaluating a Research Report
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Conducting Your Research
Part 3: Research Designs
Chapter 10: Experimental Designs
What Is an Experiment, When Should You Use It, and
How Did It Develop?
When Do You Use an Experiment?
Making Causal Inferences
When Did Experiments Develop?
What Are Key Characteristics of Experiments?
Random Assignment
Control over Extraneous Variables
Manipulating Treatment Conditions
Outcome Measures
Group Comparisons
Threats to Validity
What Are the Types of Experimental Designs?
Between-Group Designs
Within-Group or Individual Designs
What Are Potential Ethical Issues in Experimental
Research?
What Are the Steps in Conducting Experimental
Research?
Step 1. Decide If an Experiment Addresses Your Research Problem
Step 2. Form Hypotheses to Test Cause-and-Effect Relationships
Step 3. Select an Experimental Unit and Identify Study Participants
Step 4. Select an Experimental Treatment and Introduce It
Step 5. Choose a Type of Experimental Design
Step 6. Conduct the Experiment
Step 7. Organize and Analyze the Data
Step 8. Develop an Experimental Research Report
How Do You Evaluate Experimental Research?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
A Definition of Experimental Research, When to Use It, and How It Developed
Key Characteristics of Experimental Research
Types of Experimental Designs
Ethical Issues in Experimental Research
Steps in Conducting an Experiment
Evaluating an Experiment
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Chapter 11: Correlational Designs
What Is Correlational Research, When Do You Use It, and
How Did It Develop?
When Do You Use Correlational Research?
How Did Correlational Research Develop?
What Are the Types of Correlational Designs?
The Explanatory Design
The Prediction Design
What Are the Key Characteristics of Correlational
Designs?
Associations between Scores
Displays of Scores
Multiple Variable Analysis
Using Advanced Correlational Statistical Procedures
Potential Ethical Issues in Conducting Correlational
Research
What Are the Steps in Conducting a Correlational Study?
Step 1. Determine If a Correlational Study Best Addresses the Research Problem
Step 2. Identify Individuals to Study
Step 3. Identify Two or More Measures for Each Individual in the Study
Step 4. Collect Data and Monitor Potential Threats
Step 5. Analyze the Data and Represent the Results
Step 6. Interpret the Results
How Do You Evaluate a Correlational Study?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
The Definition, Use, and Development of Correlational Research
Types of Correlational Designs
Key Characteristics of Correlational Designs
Ethical Issues in Conducting Correlational Research
Steps in Conducting a Correlational Study
Criteria for Evaluating a Correlational Study
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Examples of Studies That Use a Correlational Design
Chapter 12: Survey Designs
What Is Survey Research, When Do You Use It, and How
Did It Develop?
When Do You Use Survey Research?
How Did Survey Research Develop?
What Are the Types of Survey Designs?
Cross-Sectional Survey Designs
Longitudinal Survey Designs
What Are the Key Characteristics of Survey
Research?
Sampling from a Population
Questionnaires and Interviews
Instrument Design
Response Rate
How Do You Construct and Analyze an Online or Mailed
Questionnaire?
The Cover Letter
Overall Questionnaire Construction
Data Analysis of a Research Questionnaire
How Do You Design and Conduct an Interview Survey?
Stance of the Interviewer
Training of Interviewers
Steps in Interviewing
A Telephone Interview Guide
Unique Considerations of Telephone Interviews
What Are Potential Ethical Issues in Survey Research?
What Are the Steps in Conducting Survey Research?
Step 1. Decide If a Survey Is the Best Design to Use
Step 2. Identify the Research Questions or Hypotheses
Step 3. Identify the Population, the Sampling Frame, and the Sample
Step 4. Determine the Survey Design and Data Collection Procedures
Step 5. Develop or Locate an Instrument
Step 6. Administer the Instrument
Step 7. Analyze the Data to Address the Research Questions or Hypotheses
Step 8. Write the Report
How Do You Evaluate Survey Research?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Defining Survey Research, When to Use It, and How It Developed
Types of Survey Designs
Key Characteristics of Survey Research
Constructing and Using an Online or Mailed Questionnaire
Designing and Conducting an Interview Survey
Potential Ethical Issues in Survey Research
Steps in Conducting Survey Research
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Research
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Examples of Studies That Use a Survey Design
Chapter 13: Grounded Theory Designs
What Is Grounded Theory Research, When Should You
Use It, and How Did It Develop?
When Do You Use Grounded Theory?
How Did Grounded Theory Develop?
Types of Grounded Theory Designs
The Systematic Design
The Emerging Design
The Constructivist Design
Choosing among the Designs
The Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory
Research
A Process Approach
Theoretical Sampling
Constant Comparative Data Analysis
A Core Category
Theory Generation
Memos
Potential Ethical Issues in Grounded Theory
Research
What Are the Steps in Conducting Grounded Theory
Research?
Step 1. Decide If a Grounded Theory Design Best Addresses the Research Problem
Step 2. Identify a Process to Study
Step 3. Seek Approval and Access
Step 4. Conduct Theoretical Sampling
Step 5. Code the Data
Step 6. Use Selective Coding and Develop the Theory
Step 7. Validate Your Theory
Step 8. Write a Grounded Theory Research Report
How Do You Evaluate Grounded Theory Research?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
What Grounded Theory Is, When to Use It, and How It Developed
Three Types of Grounded Theory Designs
Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory Research
Potential Ethical Issues in Grounded Theory Research
Steps in Conducting a Grounded Theory Study
Evaluating the Quality of a Grounded Theory Study
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Examples of Studies That Use a Grounded Theory Design
Chapter 14: Ethnographic Designs
What Is Ethnographic Research, When Should You Use It,
and How Did It Develop?
When Do You Conduct an Ethnography?
How Did Ethnographic Research Develop?
What Are the Types of Ethnographic Designs?
Realist Ethnographies
Case Studies
Critical Ethnographies
What Are the Key Characteristics of Ethnographic
Research?
Cultural Themes
A Culture-Sharing Group
Shared Patterns of Behavior, Belief, and Language
Fieldwork
Description, Themes, and Interpretation
Context or Setting
Researcher Reflexivity
Ethical Issues in Conducting Ethnographic Research
What Are the Steps in Conducting an Ethnography?
Step 1. Identify Intent and the Type of Design and Relate Intent to Your Research Problem
Step 2. Discuss Approval and Access Considerations
Step 3. Use Appropriate Data Collection Procedures
Step 4. Analyze and Interpret Data within a Design
Step 5. Write the Report Consistent with Your Design
How Do You Evaluate an Ethnography?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Defining Ethnographic Research, Its Use, and Its Development
Three Types of Ethnographic Designs
Potential Ethical Issues in Ethnographic Research
Steps in Conducting an Ethnography
Criteria for Evaluating an Ethnography Study
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Examples of Studies That Use an Ethnographic Design
Chapter 15: Narrative Research Designs
What Is Narrative Research, When Do You Use It, and
How Did It Develop?
When Do You Use Narrative Research?
How Did Narrative Research Develop?
What Are the Types of Narrative Designs?
Who Writes or Records the Story?
How Much of a Life Is Recorded and Presented?
Who Provides the Story?
Is a Theoretical Lens Being Used?
Can Narrative Forms Be Combined?
What Are the Key Characteristics of Narrative Designs?
Individual Experiences
Chronology of the Experiences
Collecting Individual Stories
Restorying
Coding for Themes
Context or Setting
Collaborating with Participants
What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Gathering
Stories?
What Are the Steps in Conducting Narrative Research?
Step 1. Identify a Phenomenon to Explore That Addresses an Educational Problem
Step 2. Purposefully Select an Individual from Whom You Can Learn about the Phenomenon
Step 3. Collect the Story from that Individual
Step 4. Restory or Retell the Individual’s Story
Step 5. Collaborate with the Participant–Storyteller
Step 6. Write a Story about the Participant’s Experiences
Step 7. Validate the Accuracy of the Report
How Do You Evaluate Narrative Research?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
What Is Narrative Research, When Is It Used, and How Did It Develop?
The Types of Narrative Designs
The Key Characteristics of Narrative Designs
Potential Ethical Issues in Gathering Stories
Steps in Conducting a Narrative Study
Evaluating a Narrative Study
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Examples of Studies That Use a Narrative Design
Chapter 16: Mixed Methods Designs
What Is Mixed Methods Research, When Is It Used, and
How Did It Develop?
When Do You Conduct a Mixed Methods Study?
How Did Mixed Methods Research Develop?
What Are the Types of Mixed Methods Designs?
The Convergent Design
The Explanatory Sequential Design
The Exploratory Sequential Design
The Experimental Design
The Social Justice Design
Multistage Evaluation Design
What Are the Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods
Designs?
Collect and Analyze Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Use Rigorous Methods
Integration (Combining the Databases)
Use a Specific Mixed Methods Design
Frame the Study within Theory and Philosophy
Give Priority to Either Quantitative or Qualitative Research or Both
Sequence the Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Diagram the Procedures
What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Mixed Methods
Research?
What Are the steps in Conducting a Mixed Methods
Study?
Step 1. Determine If a Mixed Methods Study Is Feasible
Step 2. Identify a Rationale for Mixing Methods
Step 3. Identify a Data Collection Strategy
Step 4. Develop Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Questions
Step 5. Collect Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Step 6. Analyze Data Separately, Concurrently, or Both
Step 7. Write the Report as a One- or Two-Phase Study or a Multiple-Stage Study
How Do You Evaluate a Mixed Methods Study?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Mixed Method Research, Its Use, and Its Development
Types of Mixed Methods Designs
Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research
Potential Ethical Issues in Mixed Methods Research
Steps Used in Conducting Mixed Methods Research
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Examples of Studies That Use a Mixed Methods Design
Chapter 17: Action Research Designs
What Is Action Research, When Do You Use It, and How
Did It Develop?
When Do You Use Action Research?
How Did Action Research Develop?
What Are the Types of Action Research Designs?
Practical Action Research
Participatory Action Research
What Are the Key Characteristics of Action Research?
A Practical Focus
The Educator–Researcher’s Own Practices
Collaboration
A Dynamic Process
A Plan of Action
Sharing Research
What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Action
Research?
What Are the Steps in Conducting an Action Research
Study?
Step 1. Determine If Action Research Is the Best Design to Use
Step 2. Identify a Problem to Study
Step 3. Locate Resources to Help Address the Problem
Step 4. Identify Information You Will Need
Step 5. Implement the Data Collection
Step 6. Analyze the Data
Step 7. Develop a Plan for Action
Step 8. Implement the Plan and Reflect
How Do You Evaluate an Action Research Study?
Key Ideas in the Chapter
Definition of Action Research, Its Use, and Its Development
Types of Action Research Designs
Key Characteristics of Action Research
Potential Ethical Issues in Action Research
Steps in Conducting an Action Research Study
Evaluating an Action Research Study
Useful Information for Producers of Research
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Additional Resources You Might Examine
Examples of Studies That Use an Action Research Design
Appendix A: Determine Size Using Sample Size Tables
Appendix B: Commonly Used Statistics in Educational Research
Appendix C: Nonnormal Distribution
Appendix D: Strategies for Defending a Research Proposal
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index