This work explores the many factors underlying the extended popularity of the cliff tomb, a local burial form in the Sichuan Basin in China during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25-220). The development of the cliff tomb was linked to a complex set of connections involved with burial forms, and continued through associations with many other contemporary burial practices: brick chamber tombs, stone chamber tombs, and princely rock-cut tombs. These connections and links formed to a large extent through the incorporation of the Sichuan region within the Empire, which began in the fourth century BC. It was as part of this overall context that a series of factors contributed to the formation and popularity of the cliff tombs in Sichuan. The hilly topography and the soft sandstone, easy to cut, provided a natural resource for the development of cliff tombs. The present book, therefore, analyses the decisions behind the exploitation of this natural resource, which were also affected by many complexities rooted in the social background. The inherent nature of the cliff tomb structure is fully explored, followed by an investigation into the corresponding innovations involving pictorial carvings and burial objects. The meanings behind the seemingly continuous ‘family’ associated with the cliff tomb structure are also explored, as the construction of the tomb resulted from the continuous endeavours of many generations, and the physical appearance of the cliff tomb becomes a metaphor for family prosperity.
Author(s): Xuan Chen
Publisher: Archaeopress
Year: 2015
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
1. Major Burial Types in Eastern Han
2. Development of Burial Form in the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 220)
3. The Social Background
4. Textual Sources
5. Archaeological Discoveries
6. Literature Review
7. Research Approaches
8. Chapter Outline
Figure 1. Distribution of the cliff tombs in the Sichuan Basin. Redrawn after Tang 1997: fig. 1, by Xuan Chen.
Figure 2. Distribution of the major Eastern Han tombs. Drawn by Xuan Chen.
Figure 3. Outside the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 4. Entrance to the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 5. Plan of the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: 81, fig. 101.
Figure 6. Ceiling of the rear chamber of the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: pl. 112.
Figure 7. A column and a low wall at the entrance to a side chamber of the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 8. A crane carved in the doorway of the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: pl. 114.
Figure 9. Stoves carved in a side chamber of the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: pl. 111.
Figure 10. The Zengjiabao brick chamber tomb M1 and M2 under a burial mound in Chengdu. After Luo Erhu 2001: 454.
Figure 11. Panoramic view of the Dahuting tomb M2 in Mixian in Henan. After Henan sheng wenwu yanjiusuo 1993: fig. 161.
Figure 12. Panoramic view of the front chamber of the Yi’nan tomb in Shandong. After Zeng Zhaoyu, Jiang Baogeng and Li Zhongyi 1956: 6.
Figure 13. An ideal plan of an Eastern Han cemetery with the que pillars. Redrawn after Wu 1995: fig. 4.1, by Xuan Chen.
Figure 14. The Yang’s family que pillar in Jiajiang in Sichuan. After Chongqing shi wenhua ju and Chongqing shi bowuguan 1992: 59.
Figure 15. Elevation of the Mawangdui tomb in Changsha in Hunan. After Hunan bowuguan and Zhongguo kexueyuan kaogu yanjiusuo 1973: fig. 3.
Figure 16. Elevation and plan of the Feng Ruren’s tomb in Nanyang in Henan. After Nanyang diqu wenwu dui and Nanyang bowuguan 1980.2: fig. 2.
Figure 17. The tomb of the king of Guangling in Gaoyou in Jiangsu. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 18. The Beidongshan tomb in Xuzhou in Jiangsu. After Xuzhou bowuguan and Nanjing daxue lishi xue xi kaogu zhuanye 2003: fig. 4.
Figure 19. Powerful families recorded in the Huayang guo zhi.
Figure 20. Pottery brick relief of an Eastern Han courtyard house. After Liu 1983: fig. 71.
Figure 21. Rubbings of two guards holding weapon from the Shiziwan cliff tomb in Leshan. After Gong Tingwan, Gong Yu and Dai Jialing 1998: figs. 224-225.
Figure 22. Rubbings of two archers from the cliff tombs in Santai. After Gong Tingwan, Gong Yu and Dai Jialing 1998: figs. 226-227.
Figure 23. Plan of the cliff tomb Tianhuishan no. 3 in Chengdu. After Liu Zhiyuan 1958: fig. 3.
Chapter 2 Tomb Structure
1. Archaeological Evidence
2. Stone as Building Material
3. Wooden Architecture as Framework of Representation
4. Important Structure for Ritual and Sacrifice
5. Conclusion
Figure 24. Categories of cliff tomb structures. After Luo Erhu 1988: fig. 5.
Figure 25. Major features of the cliff tombs in different areas of Sichuan.
Figure 26. Illustration of the façade of the cliff tomb Lijiagou M355 in Pengshan. After Chen Mingda 2003a: fig. 4.
Figure 27. The Qigedong cliff tombs in Changning in Sichuan. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 28. Planed cliff tombs at Qijiang in Santai. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 29. Plan of the site containing the Taliangzi cliff tombs M1-M6 in Zhongjiang. After Beijing Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: fig. 3.
Figure 30. Plan of the Mahao I M1 in Leshan. After Tang Changshou 1990: fig. 1.
Figure 31. The que pillars of Gao Yi in Ya’an in Sichuan. After Chongqing shi wenhua ju and Chongqing shi bowuguan 1992: fig. 89.
Figure 32. Plan of the Bailinpo M1 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: fig. 179.
Figure 33. Plan of the Shiziwan no. 1 in Leshan. Redrawn after Tang 1997: fig. 2, by Xuan Chen.
Figure 34. Plan of the tomb Dongzipai M1 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: fig. 281.
Figure 35. Bottom view of the Bailinpo M1 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: fig. 180.
Figure 36. Plan of the Dayunao tomb no. 76 in Qingshen in Sichuan. After Tang Changshou 1993: fig. 5.
Figure 37. Plan of the site of the cliff tombs M1, M2, M4 and M5 (from left to right) at Tongbankou in Xishui in Guizhou. After Huang Siting 1986: fig. 1.
Figure 38. Plan of the Mahao II M99 in Leshan. After Tang Changshou 1993: fig. 6.
Figure 39. The rear pillar in the Hujiawan M1 in Santai. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 40. Illustration of the entrance of the Douyafanggou M166 in Pengshan. After Chen Mingda 2003a: fig. 16.
Figure 41. A pillar with the bow-shaped icon and other auspicious images in the Zhaizishan M530 in Pengshan. After Chen Mingda 2003a: fig. 18.
Figure 42. A column in a burial chamber of the Bailinpo M1 in Santai. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 43. View of the tomb Hujiawan M1 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: pl. 288.
Figure 44. A ceiling in the tomb Zijingwan M3 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: fig. 107.
Figure 45. Paintings of the sun and moon on the ceiling of the Buqianqiu tomb in Luoyang in Henan (late Western Han). After Huang Minglan and Guo Yinqiang 1996: pls. 7 and 18.
Figure 46. Rubbing and illustration of an Eastern Han pictorial stone illustrating funerary scene from Weishan in Shandong. After Xin Lixiang 2000: fig. 115.
Figure 47. The tomb door with inscription from the cliff tomb HM3 in Xindu in Sichuan. After Gao Wen 2011: 184.
Chapter 3 Pictorial Carvings
1. Pictorial Carvings in Stone and Brick Chamber Tombs: Communication between Sichuan and East China
2. Pictorial Carvings in the Shrine
3. Pictorial Carvings and Memorial in the Cliff Tomb
4. Pictorial carvings and the Representation of Ritual in the Cliff Tomb
5. Conclusion
Figure 48. Panoramic view of the Dahuting tomb no. 1 in Mixian in Henan. After Henan sheng wenwu yanjiusuo 1993: fig. 16.
Figure 49. Elevation and plan of Zengjiabao no. 2 in Chengdu in Sichuan. After Chengdu shi wenwu guanlichu 1981: fig. 3.
Figure 50. Rubbings of the reliefs on the rear walls of the two rear chambers of Zengjiabao no. 1 in Chengdu. After Chengdu shi wenwu guanlichu 1981: figs. 4 and 5.
Figure 51. Front side of the door of Zengjiabao no. 2 in Chengdu. After Chengdu shi wenwu guanlichu 1981: pl. 1.
Figure 53. Plan and elevation of the Hechuan tomb in Sichuan. After Chongqing shi bowuguan tianye kaogu gongzuo and Hechuan xian wenhuaguan tianye kaogu gongzuo xiaozu 1977: figs. 1 and 2.
Figure 55. Illustration of Fu Xi holding the sun carved on one of the door posts of the door to the rear chamber of the Hechuan tomb. After Chongqing shi bowuguan tianye kaogu gongzuo and Hechuan xian wenhuaguan tianye kaogu gongzuo xiaozu 1977: fig. 20.
Figure 56. Illustration of the carving of a squatting sheep in the niche of the front chamber of the Hechuan tomb. After Chongqing shi bowuguan tianye kaogu gongzuo and Hechuan xian wenhuaguan tianye kaogu gongzuo xiaozu 1977: fig. 6.
Figure 57. Rubbing of an immortal holding the lingzhi carved in the Hechuan tomb in Sichuan. After Chongqing shi bowuguan tianye kaogu gongzuo and Hechuan xian wenhuaguan tianye kaogu gongzuo xiaozu 1977: fig. 7.
Figure 58. Illustration of a flute playing figure carved in the Hechuan tomb in Sichuan. After Chongqing shi bowuguan tianye kaogu gongzuo and Hechuan xian wenhuaguan tianye kaogu gongzuo xiaozu 1977: fig. 4.
Figure 59. Rubbing of a bird holding a fish in the Hechuan tomb in Sichuan. After Chongqing shi bowuguan tianye kaogu gongzuo and Hechuan xian wenhuaguan tianye kaogu gongzuo xiaozu 1977: fig. 3.
Figure 60. Rubbing of a flute playing figure carved in a cliff tomb in Zhongjiang in Sichuan. After Zhongguo huaxiangshi quanji bianji weiyuanhui 2000b: pl. 9.
Figure 61. A bird holding a fish carved in the cliff tomb Taliangzi M3 in Zhongjiang in Sichuan. After Beijing Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: pl. 71.
Figure 62. Illustration of the entrance of the cliff tomb Zhaizishan no. 535 in Pengshan. Two sheep and two brackets are carved on the lintel. After Chen Mingda 2003a: fig. 15.
Figure 63. Illustration of the door of the cliff tomb Qigedong M1 in Changning in Sichuan. After Luo Erhu 2005: fig. 3.
Figure 64. The scene of Jing Ke assassinating the king of Qin carved on the wall of the front hall of the Mahao I M1 in Leshan. After Zhongguo huaxiangshi quanji bianji weiyuanhui 2000b: 1.
Figure 65. Plan and elevation of the Cangshan tomb in Shandong. After Shandong sheng bowuguan and Cangshan xian wenhuaguan 1975: fig. 1.
Figure 66. Carvings on the western wall of the main chamber of the Cangshan tomb in Shandong. After Shandong sheng bowuguan and Cangshan xian wenhuaguan 1975: fig. 7.1.
Figure 67. Carvings on the eastern wall of the main chamber of the Cangshan tomb in Shandong. After Shandong sheng bowuguan and Cangshan xian wenhuaguan 1975: fig. 7.2.
Figure 68. Rubbing of the stone engravings in the niche on the eastern wall of the main chamber in the Cangshan tomb in Shandong. After Shandong sheng bowuguan and Cangshan xian wenhuaguan 1975: fig. 8.2.
Figure 69. Rubbing of the front side of the lintel of the door of the Cangshan tomb in Shandong. After Shandong sheng bowuguan and Cangshan xian wenhuaguan 1975: fig. 6.1.
Figure 70. Rubbing of the back side of the lintel of the door of the Cangshan tomb in Shandong. After Shandong sheng bowuguan and Cangshan xian wenhuaguan 1975: fig. 6.2.
Figure 71. Schematic of the middle chamber of the Yi’nan tomb. Redrawn after Thompson 1998: fig. 5.24, by Xuan Chen.
Figure 72. Carriage procession on the northern wall of the middle chamber of the Yi’nan tomb. After Zeng Zhaoyu, Jiang Baogeng and Li Zhongyi 1956: pl. 49.
Figure 73. The end of the procession and the ji table on the southern wall of the middle chamber of the Yi’nan tomb. After Zeng Zhaoyu, Jiang Baogeng and Li Zhongyi 1956: pl. 49.
Figure 74. Rubbing of the relief on a door post of the entrance to the rear chambers of the Yi’nan tomb in Shandong. After After Zeng Zhaoyu, Jiang Baogeng and Li Zhongyi 1956: pl. 55.
Figure 76. Pictorial carvings in the Wu Liang shrine. After Xin Lixiang 2000: fig. 64.
Figure 77. Carving and rubbing of the story of Yuan Gu (left) in the front hall of the cliff tomb Shiziwan no. 1 in Leshan. After Tang Changshou 2010: fig. 4.
Figure 78. Rubbing of the three stories on filial sons carved in the front hall of the cliff tomb Shiziwan no. 1 in Leshan. After Tang Changshou 2010: fig. 2.
Figure 79. Plan of the Taliangzi M3 in Zhongjiang. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: fig. 15.
Figure 80. A side chamber with mural paintings on the tomb occupant’s family history in the Taliangzi M3 in Zhongjiang. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: pl. 16.
Figure 81. Expanded diagram of the side chamber in the Taliangzi M3 in Zhongjiang. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: fig. 25.
Figure 82. Picture no.5 in the side chamber in the Taliangzi M3 in Zhongjiang. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: pl. 52.
Figure 83. Illustration of the carvings on the rear wall of the shrine of Zhu Wei in Jinxiang in Shandong. After Zheng Yan 1998: fig. 4.
Figure 84. Illustration of the carving of the tomb occupant from the Qianliangtai tomb in Zhucheng in Shandong. After Ren Rixin 1981: fig. 8.
Figure 85. Mural painting on a dining scene in a side chamber of the Bailinpo M1 in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: pl. 172.
Figure 86. Rubbing of the scene on sacrifice at tomb door carved in the Yi’nan tomb in Shandong. After Zhongguo huaxiangshi quanji bianji weiyuanhui 2000c: pl. 186.
Figure 87. Plan of the façade of the seven caves (the Qigedong cliff tombs) in Changning in Sichuan. After Luo Erhu 2005: fig. 1.
Figure 88. Entrance to the Xiaoba II M80 in Leshan. After Tang Changshou 1993: fig. 12.
Figure 89. A kissing couple carved on the tomb door lintel of the cliff tomb M550 in Pengshan. After Nanjing bowuyuan 1991: pl. 12.
Figure 90. A Buddha image on the door lintel of the Mahao I M1 in Leshan. Photograph by Xuan Chen.
Figure 91. Dancing foreigners carved in the Taliangzi M3 in Zhongjiang. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: pl. 61.
Figure 92. Entrance to the coffin chamber of the Taliangzi M3 in Zhongjiang. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Deyang shi wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Zhongjiang xian wenwu baohu guanli suo 2008: fig. 28.
Chapter 4 Burial Objects
1. Plan of Burial Objects
2. The Money Tree
3. Stone Coffin
4. Conclusion
Figure 93. Plan of the cliff tomb Tujing no. 5 in Zhongxian in Sichuan. After Zhang Caijun 1985: fig. 17.
Figure 94. Money tree from the Hejiashan M2 in Mianyang in Sichuan. After He Zhiguo 2006a: fig. 5.51.
Figure 95. Bronze mold for the casting of the Han wuzhu coin. After He Zhiguo 2006a: fig. 3.3.
Figure 96. Bronze mould for the casting of the wuzhu coin from Xichang in Sichuan and products of the wuzhu coins from Xichang. After He Zhiguo 2006a: figs. 3.10, 3.11, 3.12 and 3.13.
Figure 97. Rubbing of the relief on one side of the stone coffin no. 3 from Jianyang in Sichuan, with the inscription of “zhuzhu 鑄株”. After Neijiang shi wenguansuo and Jianyang xian wenhuaguan 1991: fig. 11.
Figure 98. Rubbing of a pottery money tree base illustrating the scene of collecting coins from Yong’an in Santai. After He Zhiguo 2006a: fig. 3.2.
Figure 100. A money tree branch illustrating the Queen Mother of the West and her attendants from Gaocao in Xichang in Sichuan. After Liu Shixu 1987: fig. 1.
Figure 99. Rubbing of a pictorial tomb brick illustrating the Queen Mother of the West and her attendants from Xinfan in Chengdu. After Chang Renxia, Jiang Yingju and Gao Wen 1988: pl. 248.
Figure 101. A money tree trunk with the image of a Buddha from the cliff tomb Hejiashan M1 in Mianyang. After He Zhiguo 1991c: fig. 19.
Figure 102. A money tree base illustrating a seated Buddha from Pengshan. After Nanjing bowuyuan 1991: fig. 44.
Figure 103. The stone coffin of Wang Hui from Lushan in Sichuan. After Gao Wen 2011: 211.
Figure 104. Rubbing of a coffin wall from Dayi in Sichuan. After Gao Wen 2011: 151.
Figure 105. Rubbing of a coffin wall from Xinjin in Sichuan. After Gao Wen 2011: 198.
Figure 106. Rubbing of a coffin from Xinjin in Sichuan. After Gao Wen 2011: 197.
Figure 107. Carvings and rubbing of one side of a stone coffin from Chengdu. After Chengdu wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and Qingbaijiang qu wenwu baohu guanlisuo 2010: pl. 17.
Figure 108. Rubbing of the relief on one end of the stone coffin of Wang Hui from Lushan in Sichuan. After Zhongguo huaxiangshi quanji bianji weiyuanhui 2000b: pl. 91.
Figure 109. A built-in coffin in the Tiantaishan tomb in Santai. After Sichuan sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiuyuan, Mianyang shi bowuguan and Santai xian wenwu guanli suo 2007: pl. 83.
Figure 110. Plan of the cliff tomb HM3 in Xindu in Sichuan. After Chen Yunhong, Zhang Yuxin and Wang Bo 2007: fig. 8.
Figure 111. A pictorial stone coffin from the cliff tomb HM3 in Xindu in Sichuan. After Chen Yunhong, Zhang Yuxin and Wang Bo 2007: fig. 14.
Figure 112. Plan of the cliff tomb at Guitoushan in Jianyang in Sichuan. After Neijiang shi wenguansuo and Jianyang xian wenhuaguan 1991: fig. 2.
Figure 113. Rubbing of the relief on one side of the stone coffin no. 2 from Jianyang in Sichuan. After Neijiang shi wenguansuo and Jianyang xian wenhuaguan 1991: fig. 9.
Figure 114. One side of a built-in coffin in a cliff tomb in Xinjin in Sichuan. After Wen You 1955: fig. 43.
Figure 115. Rubbing of the relief on one side of a stone coffin from Shehong in Sichuan. The story on Qiu Hu’s wife is on the left. The story on Ji Zha is on the right. After Gao Wen 2011: 237.
Figure 116. Rubbing of the relief on one side of the stone coffin no. 5 from Xinjin in Sichuan. After Gao Wen 2011: 166.
Figure 117. Rubbing of the relief on one side of the stone coffin no. 7 from Xinjin in Sichuan. After Gao Wen 2011: 171.
Chapter 5 Conclusion
Bibliography
Appendix 1 Stories of Filial Sons and Eminent Men and Women Carved in the Cliff tombs in Sichuan
Appendix 2 Eastern Han High Officials of the Areas Outside Sichuan from the Sichuan Area
Appendix 3 Eastern Han Cliff Tombs Excavated in the Sichuan AreaI: single chamber II: double-chamber III: more than two chambers
