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Distributed Energy Storage in Urban Smart Grids

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Renewable energy is key to stopping climate change, however, the intermittent nature of most forms of renewable energy generation poses a challenge. Energy storage is therefore a focus of research and development, particularly for urban areas with their limited space and high population density, which results in massive demand for both small distributed and utility-scale generation. Such locations require thorough integration of storage, with the urban energy system treated as a whole, and sufficient planning, sizing and siting, and upgrades to the existing power grid hardware.

This book conveys the technology for energy storage for urban areas, treating the urban power grid as a system, and providing an integrated picture. After an introduction to the energy transition and urban grids, chapters cover experiences and principles regarding distributed energy and storage, grid resilience, EV usage and charging infrastructure, standards and grid codes, monitoring and power quality, hosting capacity, intelligent electricity markets, and integrated operation.

Written by international experts in the field, Distributed Energy Storage in Urban Smart Grids offers valuable insights to researchers and professionals from academic institutions, grid operators and the storage technology industry.

Author(s): Paulo F. Ribeiro, Rafael S. Salles
Series: IET Energy Engineering Series, 214
Publisher: Institution of Engineering and Technology
Year: 2023

Language: English
Pages: 351
City: London

Cover
Contents
Biography
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
1 Introduction: energy transition, urban grids, and energy storage
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Urban smart grids
1.3 Energy storage disruption
1.4 Holistic view for distributed energy storage
1.5 Contents overview
References
2 Distributed energy generation and storage
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Distributed generation phenomenon
2.2.1 Distributed generation: classification and technologies
2.2.2 Driver and barriers in connecting distributed generation
2.3 Renewable energy on distributed generation
2.3.1 Technical benefit of DG installation
2.3.2 Economic advantages of DG
2.3.3 Issues with large-scale DG penetration
2.4 Energy storage technologies and its role in power systems transition
2.4.1 Energy storage technologies
2.4.2 Energy storage role on power systems transition
2.5 Opportunities for distributed energy generation and storage
2.5.1 The main factors that may influence the future role of DG in electricity systems
2.5.2 Opportunities for DG and ES
2.6 Conclusion
References
3 Energy storage as a pillar of the architecture of a resilient electric grid
3.1 Recent technological developments
3.1.1 ES systems for urban environments
3.2 Integration of ES with renewable DG
3.2.1 Challenges and solutions for ES
3.2.2 Controls and management for BESS
3.3 ES as part of the architecture of the future grid
3.3.1 Architecture of the future grid with ES
3.3.2 ES planning in transmission grids
3.3.3 ES planning in distribution networks
3.4 Long-term storage—needs and requirements
3.5 Economic aspects of behind the meter storage
3.5.1 Blue Sky Day Economics
3.5.2 Reliability cost impacts
3.5.3 Resiliency cost impacts
3.6 Summary
References
4 International experience on distributed energy storage
4.1 World context for distributed energy storage
4.2 Regulatory framework
4.2.1 Germany
4.2.2 Australia
4.2.3 United Kingdom
4.2.4 USA—North Carolina, California, New York, Massachusetts
4.2.5 India
4.3 Lessons learned and detachable initiatives
4.4 Issues and challenges roadmap
References
5 Control and optimization of distributed energy storage systems
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Distribution system context
5.1.2 Hybrid energy storage systems
5.2 Optimal operation algorithm
5.2.1 Model predictive control
5.2.2 Restrictions
5.3 Local controllers
5.3.1 Grid connection model
5.3.2 Grid forming mode
5.4 Conclusions
References
6 Considerations for EV usage for distributed energy storage employment & charging infrastructure
6.1 History of EVs
6.2 Types of EVs
6.3 EV charging infrastructure
6.3.1 Provide reliable and robust connection to the grid for the EV
6.4 Power electronics in EV
6.5 Impact of EVs on power quality
6.5.1 Harmonics
6.5.2 Supraharmonics
6.5.3 Noise
6.5.4 Interharmonics
6.5.5 Unbalance
6.5.6 DC offset
6.5.7 Rapid voltage variations and voltage flicker
6.6 EVs as a flexible load
6.7 Conclusion
References
7 Standards and grid codes for distributed energy storage employment
7.1 General considerations: development process for standards and grid codes
7.2 Standards: developed and under development
7.2.1 DER standard series development timeline
7.2.2 Aspects under development
7.3 Grid codes for distributed energy storage systems
7.3.1 Grid codes for DERs
7.4 Challenges for interconnection to urban grids (DESS)
7.5 Conclusion
References
8 Monitoring distributed energy storage for power quality analysis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 PQ on DC systems
8.3 DC PQ parameters
8.3.1 DC voltage fluctuation
8.3.2 DC voltage ripple
8.3.3 Voltage deviation
8.3.4 Voltage sag and interruption
8.3.5 Oscillatory load transient
8.4 Novelty detection for waveform capture
8.4.1 DTW
8.4.2 EDR signal
8.4.3 TWED
8.4.4 Ruzicka similarity
8.4.5 The difference of frame energies
8.4.6 Metrics comparison
8.5 PQ in the AC grid side
8.5.1 The increase of harmonic and interharmonic distortions in the system
8.5.2 Supraharmonic distortion
8.6 A monitoring system based on the SED concept
8.6.1 The SED
8.6.2 The system architecture of a real-time PQMC
8.6.3 Results from the PQMC
8.6.4 Results of PQI from laboratory setup
8.6.5 Harmonic phasor estimation
8.6.6 Field results
8.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
9 Applications of battery energy storage systems for distribution systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Application of small behind-the-meter battery energy storage systems
9.2.1 Detailed analysis for LV systems
9.2.2 General analysis for a complete feeder
9.3 Application of medium battery energy storage systems in LV systems
9.3.1 Detailed analysis for a LV system
9.3.2 General analysis for a complete feeder
9.4 Application of large battery energy storage systems in distribution feeders and substations
9.4.1 Improvement of the demand profile of a feeder
9.4.2 Backup supply for off-peak demand
9.4.3 Energy arbitrage
9.4.4 Voltage sag mitigation
9.5 Summary of applications
Acknowledgements
References
10 An extended hosting capacity approach including energy storage
10.1 Concept of hosting capacity
10.1.1 Performance index clarification and simplification
10.1.2 Hosting capacity region definition
10.1.3 Hosting capacity region with ESS
10.2 Hosting capacity region assessment
10.2.1 Distribution grid model
10.2.2 Linearized DistFlow model
10.2.3 Relaxed DistFlow model
10.3 Hosting capacity region reshaping with storage
10.3.1 Minimal energy storage capacity quantification
10.3.2 General optimal storage capacity design
10.3.3 Case study
10.4 Summary
References
11 Urban grid resilience in the context of new infrastructure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Resilience in urban power grids
11.3 Fault-initiated islanding for resilience enhancement
11.3.1 Fault-initiated islanding detection
11.3.2 Control modes of DERs
11.3.3 Performance evaluation
11.4 Dynamic voltage support
11.4.1 Long-term voltage instability problem
11.4.2 Coordination mechanism for dynamic voltage support
11.4.3 Performance evaluation
11.5 Service provision
11.5.1 aFRR service
11.5.2 Constraints
11.5.3 Numerical simulation
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Energy storage impacts on intelligent electricity markets
12.1 Initial considerations
12.2 Business models and ancillary services in the context of ESS
12.3 ESS and demand response programs in the context of high penetration of intermittent renewable sources
12.4 New transitions in energy market infrastructure toward a hydrogen economy
12.5 Changes on electricity market agents due to ESS deployment and regulatory issues
12.6 Energy storage policies
12.7 Flexibility market
References
13 Integrated operation of energy storage in urban grids
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Use of energy storage of different customer archetypes
13.2.1 Residential microgrids
13.2.2 Commercial/industrial microgrids
13.3 Transportation and batteries
13.3.1 EVs
13.3.2 V2G and G2V
13.3.3 G2V and V2G
13.3.4 Electric trams and regenerative break
13.4 Integration of energy storage and aggregation alternatives
13.4.1 CES
13.4.2 Community choice aggregation
13.5 Final remarks
References
Index
Back Cover