Digital Manufacturing: The Industrialization of "Art to Part" 3D Additive Printing

Front Cover
Digital Manufacturing
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 A historical perspective on industrial production and outlook
Abbreviations
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Preindustrialization
1.2.1 Craft production
1.2.2 Agricultural revolution
1.3 First Industrial Revolution
1.3.1 Mechanization
1.3.2 Laissez-faire capitalism
1.3.3 Social and environmental impact
1.4 Second Industrial Revolution
1.4.1 Division of labor
1.4.2 Mass production
1.4.3 Batch production
1.5 Third Industrial Revolution
1.5.1 Automation
1.5.2 Numerical control
1.5.3 Industrial robots
1.5.4 Early computers
1.5.4.1 Programmable logic controller
1.5.4.2 Computer numerical control
1.5.4.3 Direct numerical control
1.5.4.4 Distributed computer system
1.5.5 Group technology
1.5.5.1 Cellular manufacturing
1.5.5.2 Automated flexible manufacturing system
1.5.5.2.1 Workstation
1.5.5.2.2 Supporting hardware
1.5.5.2.3 Human operators
1.5.6 Modern computers
1.5.7 Computer system architecture
1.5.7.1 Hardware
1.5.7.2 Software
1.5.8 Computer-aided applications
1.5.8.1 Computer-aided design
1.5.8.1.1 Computer-aided design system
1.5.8.1.2 Design process
1.5.8.2 Computer-aided process planning
1.5.8.3 Computer-aided manufacturing
1.5.9 Computer-integrated manufacturing
1.5.10 Product development process
1.5.10.1 Sequential engineering
1.5.10.2 Concurrent engineering
1.5.10.3 Collaborative engineering
1.5.11 Additive manufacturing
1.5.12 Sustainability in manufacturing
1.5.12.1 Eco-efficiency
1.5.12.2 Eco-effectiveness
1.6 Forth Industrial Revolution
1.6.1 Industrie 4.0
1.6.2 Cyber-physical system
1.6.3 Factory of the future
1.7 Summary
References
2 Digital product design and engineering analysis techniques
Abbreviations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Product design process
2.3 3D digital form creation
2.3.1 3D digital forms
2.3.1.1 Form representations
2.3.1.2 Properties
2.3.2 Form modeling
2.3.2.1 Modeling approaches
2.3.3 Case study
2.3.3.1 Initialization and parametric modeling
2.3.3.2 Design evaluation
2.3.3.3 Generative modeling and result
2.4 Intent-based systemic design
2.4.1 Functional feature approach
2.4.1.1 Functional analysis of the design
2.4.1.2 Abstract geometry features modeling
2.4.1.3 Detailed computer-aided design part modeling
2.4.2 Feature-based computer-aided design modeling
2.4.2.1 Object-oriented
2.4.2.2 Easy to represent relationships among parts/faces/interfaces
2.4.2.3 A good way to manage information flow in concurrent engineering
2.4.2.4 Friendly to manufacturing analysis and additive manufacturing optimization
2.4.3 Two typical decision-making types: retrieval and inspirational
2.5 Engineering analysis
2.5.1 Computational fluid dynamics simulation
2.5.2 Case study
2.5.2.1 Parametric computer-aided design model build-up
2.5.2.2 Computational fluid dynamics simulation
2.5.2.3 Shape optimization
2.6 Current challenges and future work
2.6.1 Current challenges
2.6.1.1 Interoperability among different design and engineering analysis stages
2.6.1.2 Change propagation and information consistency management
2.6.2 Expected future work
2.6.2.1 Standardization of model formats in a unified approach
2.6.2.2 Decentralized computer-aided design/computer-aided engineering network and cloud processing algorithms
2.7 Summary
References
3 Design methodologies for conventional and additive manufacturing
List of abbreviations
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Design for Assembly
3.1.2 Design for Manufacturing
3.2 Design methodologies for conventional manufacturing
3.2.1 Design for Manufacturing and Assembly guidelines
3.2.2 Design for Manufacturing and Assembly procedures
3.2.2.1 Boothroyd-Dewhurst Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
3.2.2.2 Hitachi Assemblability Evaluation Method
3.2.2.3 Lucas-Hull Design for Assembly
3.2.3 Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
3.2.3.1 Consumer products
3.2.3.1.1 Hasbro (1993)
3.2.3.1.2 Hewlett-Packard (1994)
3.2.3.1.3 Motorola Solutions (2012)
3.2.3.1.4 Endress+Hauser (2016)
3.2.3.2 Aerospace and automotive industries
3.2.3.2.1 McDonnell Douglas Corporation (now Boeing) (1994)
3.2.3.2.2 Beijing Automotive Technology Center (2017)
3.2.3.3 Construction in Singapore
3.2.4 Limitations of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
3.2.4.1 Getting the management on board
3.2.4.2 Difficulties in the integration of design engineering teams
3.2.4.3 Lack of resilience in the Design for Manufacturing and Assembly software
3.2.4.4 Different objectives and project-specific constraints for each product
3.3 A paradigm shift
3.3.1 Design for X
3.3.2 Design for Additive Manufacturing
3.3.2.1 Definition of Design for Additive Manufacturing
3.3.2.2 Design freedoms afforded by additive manufacturing
3.3.3 Trend of hybrid manufacturing production
3.4 Design methodologies for additive manufacturing
3.4.1 Notable Design for Additive Manufacturing research works
3.4.2 Design stages of a general Design for Additive Manufacturing framework
3.4.2.1 Product planning
3.4.2.1.1 Design requirements
3.4.2.1.2 Part selection
3.4.2.1.3 Additive manufacturing utilization
3.4.2.1.4 Broad selection of process–machine–material combinations
3.4.2.2 Conceptual design
3.4.2.2.1 Heuristic principles and guidelines
3.4.2.2.2 Digital form generation
3.4.2.3 Embodiment design
3.4.2.3.1 Function integration and part consolidation
3.4.2.3.2 Structural and mechanical optimization
3.4.2.4 Detail design
3.4.2.4.1 Specific selection of a process–machine–material combination
3.4.2.4.2 Dimensional specifications of features
3.4.2.5 Manufacturing and postprocessing
3.4.2.5.1 Build parameters
3.4.2.5.2 Postprocessing
3.4.3 Challenges of Design for Additive Manufacturing
3.4.3.1 Lack of universal validation for a common framework and additive manufacturing–related standards
3.4.3.2 Limited studies on additive manufacturing process–machine–material selection
3.4.3.3 Need for additive manufacturing–specific software tools
3.4.3.4 Need to update design and engineering education
3.5 Summary
References
4 Additive manufacturing for digital transformation
List of abbreviation
4.1 Introduction to additive manufacturing
4.1.1 Definitions and terminologies
4.1.2 Overview of the additive manufacturing market
4.1.2.1 Additive manufacturing–a building block of digital manufacturing
4.1.2.2 The rise of additive manufacturing
4.1.2.3 The global additive manufacturing market
4.1.2.4 Additive manufacturing systems market
4.1.2.5 Expiration of key patents and industrial trends
4.1.3 Industry drivers for additive manufacturing adoption
4.1.3.1 Additive manufacturing versus conventional manufacturing
4.2 Additive manufacturing process chain
4.2.1 Level of additive manufacturing implementation
4.2.1.1 Level 1: Using additive manufacturing for rapid prototyping and tooling
4.2.1.2 Level 2: Using additive manufacturing for direct part replacement
4.2.1.3 Level 3: Using additive manufacturing for parts consolidation
4.2.1.4 Level 4: Using additive manufacturing for new product designs
4.2.2 Design, optimization, and simulation
4.2.2.1 Design generation
4.2.2.2 Optimization and simulation
4.2.2.3 Conversion to printable file format (STL, AMF format)
4.2.3 Material selection
4.2.4 Manufacturing
4.2.5 Postprocessing
4.2.6 Process monitoring and validation
4.3 Additive manufacturing technologies and processes
4.3.1 Vat photopolymerization
4.3.1.1 Introduction and definition
4.3.1.2 Working principles
4.3.1.3 Benefits
4.3.1.4 Drawbacks
4.3.1.5 Range of materials available
4.3.1.6 Applications
4.3.2 Material extrusion
4.3.2.1 Introduction and definition
4.3.2.2 Working principles
4.3.2.3 Benefits
4.3.2.4 Drawbacks
4.3.2.5 Range of materials available
4.3.2.6 Applications
4.3.3 Material jetting
4.3.3.1 Introduction and definition
4.3.3.2 Working principles
4.3.3.3 Benefits
4.3.3.4 Drawbacks
4.3.3.5 Range of materials available
4.3.3.6 Applications
4.3.4 Sheet lamination
4.3.4.1 Introduction and definition
4.3.4.2 Working principles
4.3.4.3 Benefits
4.3.4.4 Drawbacks
4.3.4.5 Range of materials available
4.3.4.6 Applications
4.3.5 Powder bed fusion
4.3.5.1 Introduction and definition
4.3.5.2 Working principles
4.3.5.3 Benefits
4.3.5.4 Drawbacks
4.3.5.5 Range of materials available
4.3.5.6 Applications
4.3.6 Binder jetting
4.3.6.1 Introduction and definition
4.3.6.2 Working principles
4.3.6.3 Benefits
4.3.6.4 Drawbacks
4.3.6.5 Range of materials available
4.3.6.6 Applications
4.3.7 Directed energy deposition
4.3.7.1 Introduction and definition
4.3.7.2 Working principles
4.3.7.3 Benefits
4.3.7.4 Drawbacks
4.3.7.5 Range of materials available
4.3.7.6 Applications
4.4 Case studies of additive manufacturing during the COVID-19 pandemic
4.4.1 Providing rapid emergency responses
4.4.2 Mass customizations
4.4.3 Agile operations and accelerated productions
4.4.4 Preserving sustainability and continuity
4.5 Summary
References
5 Simulation and optimization for additive manufacturing
Abbreviations
Symbols
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Macroscale modeling
5.1.2 Mesoscale modeling
5.1.3 Microscale modeling
5.1.4 Parameters optimization
5.1.5 Objectives
5.2 A review of models employing in additive manufacturing simulations
5.2.1 Powder interaction
5.2.1.1 Software
5.2.2 Heat transfer and melt pool dynamics
5.2.2.1 Software
5.2.3 Light source simulation
5.2.3.1 Melt pool simulation using simplified heat source
5.2.3.2 Melt pool simulation using ray-tracing model
5.2.4 Crystallization/microstructure simulation
5.2.4.1 Time-dependent Ginzburg–Landau model
5.2.4.2 Granasy model
5.2.5 Summary
5.3 Topology optimization
5.3.1 Structural optimization
5.3.1.1 Topology optimized lattice-based structure
5.3.1.2 Intersected lattice
5.3.1.3 Graded lattice
5.3.1.4 Scaled lattice
5.3.2 Types of topology optimization methodologies
5.3.2.1 Solid isotropic material with penalization method
5.3.2.2 Level set method
5.3.2.3 Evolutionary method
5.3.3 Topology optimization workflow for additive manufacturing
5.3.3.1 Creating the design space
5.3.3.2 Meshing the model
5.3.3.3 Defining loads and boundary condition
5.3.3.4 Creating design responses
5.3.3.5 Defining objective functions
5.3.3.6 Defining constraints
5.3.3.7 Postprocessing of optimization results
5.3.4 Available commercial software for topology optimization
5.3.4.1 Altair HyperWorks OptiStruct
5.3.4.2 ANSYS Discovery AIM
5.3.4.3 Autodesk Generative Design
5.3.4.4 COMSOL Optimization module
5.3.4.5 Dassault Systèmes SE Tosca Structure
5.3.4.6 nTopology Element Pro
5.3.4.7 PTC Generative Topology Optimization extension
5.3.4.8 Siemens Solid Edge Generative Design
5.4 Summary
References
6 Polymer materials for additive manufacturing
List of abbreviation
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Molecular material–related classifications
6.1.2 Molecular structure–related classifications
6.1.3 Polymer classification for additive manufacturing
6.2 Thermosets
6.2.1 Curing
6.2.1.1 Gelation
6.2.1.2 Release of heat
6.2.1.3 Shrinkage
6.2.2 Curing characteristics
6.2.2.1 Monomer conversion
6.2.2.2 Cross-link density
6.2.2.3 Curing rate
6.2.2.4 Curing depth
6.2.3 Dynamic covalent bonds
6.3 Thermoplastics
6.3.1 Polymer melt
6.3.1.1 Random coil
6.3.1.2 Globular and stretched states
6.3.1.3 Entanglement
6.3.2 Rheological properties
6.3.2.1 Viscosity
6.3.2.2 Viscoelasticity
6.3.3 Thermal properties
6.3.3.1 Phase transition temperatures
6.3.3.2 Thermal diffusivity
6.3.3.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion
6.3.3.4 Thermally reversible and irreversible shrinkage
6.3.3.5 Thermal stress and warpage
6.4 Printability in 3D printing
6.4.1 Layering
6.4.1.1 Effect of layering on multimaterial printing
6.4.1.2 Layering of free flow materials
6.4.1.3 Layering of sheet materials
6.4.2 Energy and material bonding
6.4.2.1 Particle energy
6.4.2.2 Mechanical and thermal energy
6.4.2.3 Adhesive energy
6.5 Characteristics of 3D printed parts
6.5.1 Porosity
6.5.2 Anisotropy
6.5.3 Heterogeneity
6.6 Summary
6.7 Further recommendation
References
7 Metal additive manufacturing
Abbreviations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Classification of metal additive manufacturing technology
7.2.1 Powder bed fusion
7.2.1.1 Laser powder bed fusion
7.2.1.2 Electron-beam melting
7.2.2 Direct energy deposition
7.2.2.1 Direct laser deposition
7.2.2.2 Electron-beam additive manufacturing
7.2.2.3 Wire arc additive manufacturing
7.2.3 Binder jetting
7.2.4 Sheet lamination
7.3 Preparation and characterization techniques for metal additive manufacturing feedstock
7.3.1 Powder preparation techniques
7.3.1.1 Gas atomization
7.3.1.2 Plasma atomization
7.3.1.3 Plasma rotation electrode process
7.3.2 Powder characterization techniques
7.3.2.1 Powder size distribution
7.3.2.2 Flowability
7.3.2.3 Chemical composition
7.4 Mechanical properties standard testing for metallic additive manufacturing components
7.4.1 Tension
7.4.2 Compression
7.4.3 Hardness
7.4.4 Fatigue performance
7.5 Defects in metallic additive manufacturing components
7.5.1 Defect categories
7.5.1.1 Excessive residual stresses
7.5.1.2 Pores
7.5.1.3 Cracking
7.5.1.4 Distortions
7.5.1.5 Large surface roughness
7.5.2 Defects detection techniques
7.5.2.1 Residual stress measurement
7.5.2.2 Porosity detection
7.5.2.3 Printing accuracy determination
7.5.2.4 Surface topography measurement
7.6 Postprocessing
7.6.1 Removal of adhesive powders, support structures, and substrate plates
7.6.2 Heat treatment
7.6.3 Surface finishing
7.7 Applications
7.7.1 Aerospace
7.7.1.1 Direct component manufacturing
7.7.1.2 Damage component repair
7.7.2 Automotive industry
7.7.2.1 Commercial vehicles
7.7.2.2 Racing vehicles
7.7.3 Healthcare
7.7.3.1 Dentistry
7.7.3.2 Orthopedic implants
7.8 Conclusion and perspectives
References
8 The emerging frontiers in materials for functional three-dimensional printing
List of abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Composites materials for aerospace industry
8.2.1 Overview of the composite industry
8.2.2 Composites for three-dimensional printing
8.2.3 Challenges and potentials in composites materials for aerospace industry
8.2.3.1 Scaling up to big area additive manufacturing
8.2.3.2 Lack of three-dimensional printable composite materials
8.2.3.3 Poor out-of-plane strength
8.3 Biomaterials for bioprinting
8.3.1 Overview of bioprinting
8.3.2 Bioinks for bioprinting
8.3.2.1 Natural bioinks
8.3.2.2 Synthetic bioinks
8.3.3 Challenges and potential in bioprinting of biomaterials
8.3.3.1 Natural material has relatively weak strength
8.3.3.2 Added components, added complexity
8.3.3.3 Limitation in print resolution
8.4 Ceramics for biomedical implants
8.4.1 Overview of three-dimensional printed ceramic implants
8.4.2 Ceramic materials by three-dimensional printing for biomedical implants
8.4.3 Challenges and potential in ceramics for three-dimensional printing
8.4.3.1 Flowability of ceramics
8.4.3.2 Thermal and residual stresses
8.4.3.3 Dimensional accuracy
8.5 Conductive materials for electronic printing
8.5.1 Overview of three-dimensional printed electronics
8.5.2 Materials for three-dimensional printing of electronics
8.5.3 Challenges and potential in three-dimensional printing electronics
8.5.3.1 Challenges involving the materials
8.5.3.2 Limitation on the printing process
8.5.3.3 Concerns with environmental and safety issues
8.6 Summary and moving forward
References
9 Three-dimensional (3D) printing for building and construction
List of abbreviations
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Digital transformation and automation in building and construction
9.1.2 Short history of construction three-dimensional printing
9.1.3 Technology trends and needs—why 3D printing?
9.2 Current concrete printing technologies
9.2.1 Gantry-based systems
9.2.2 Arm-based systems
9.2.3 Multirobot printing systems
9.2.4 Printing process control
9.3 Fresh and harden properties of three-dimensional printable concrete
9.3.1 Different materials used and their effect on three-dimensional printing technology
9.3.1.1 The role of aggregates in three-dimensional concrete printing
9.3.1.2 The role of paste in three-dimensional concrete printing
9.3.2 Fresh properties of three-dimensional printable concrete materials
9.3.2.1 Importance of yield stress and plastic viscosity in three-dimensional printing
9.3.2.2 Printability studies with slump and slump flow test
9.3.3 Harden properties of three-dimensional printable materials
9.3.3.1 Mechanical strength of three-dimensional concrete printed sample in different directions
9.3.3.2 Time gap effect on the interlay bond strength
9.3.4 Three-dimensional concrete printing parameters
9.3.4.1 Effects of printing parameters on concrete filament
9.3.4.2 Printing of concrete supports materials
9.4 Three-dimensional concrete printed applications and case study
9.4.1 Applications of three-dimensional printing in building and construction
9.4.2 3D concrete printing technology developed by NTU Singapore
9.5 Sustainable raw materials in concrete printing
9.5.1 Sustainable materials for cement replacement
9.5.2 Sustainable materials for natural sand replacement
9.5.3 Sustainable materials in spray-based three-dimensional printing
9.5.3.1 Fly ash cenosphere
9.5.3.2 Magnesium oxide-based cement
9.6 Summary
References
10 Process monitoring and inspection
Abbreviations
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Signals, sensors, and techniques for process monitoring
10.2.1 Optical signals
10.2.1.1 Sensor types
10.2.1.1.1 Photodiodes
10.2.1.1.2 Charge-coupled device and complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor
10.2.1.1.3 Spectrometers
10.2.1.2 Practical use
10.2.1.2.1 Sensor parameters
10.2.1.2.2 Installation method
10.2.1.2.3 Illumination devices and diffusers
10.2.1.2.4 Lenses and filters
10.2.1.2.5 System testing and calibration
10.2.1.2.6 Data registration
10.2.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages
10.2.1.4 Applications
10.2.2 Thermal signals
10.2.2.1 Sensor types
10.2.2.1.1 Thermometers
10.2.2.1.2 Pyrometers
10.2.2.1.3 Infrared cameras
10.2.2.2 Practical use
10.2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages
10.2.2.4 Applications
10.2.3 X-ray signals
10.2.3.1 Working principle
10.2.3.2 Practical use
10.2.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages
10.2.3.4 Applications
10.2.4 Acoustic signals
10.2.4.1 Working principle
10.2.4.1.1 Acoustic emission
10.2.4.1.2 Ultrasonic waves
10.2.4.2 Practical use
10.2.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages
10.2.4.4 Application cases
10.2.5 Other signals
10.2.5.1 Displacement signals
10.2.5.2 Vibration signals
10.2.5.3 Current signals
10.3 Applications in additive manufacturing processes
10.3.1 PBF processes
10.3.1.1 Monitoring systems
10.3.1.2 Monitored signatures
10.3.1.3 Process defects
10.3.2 DED processes
10.3.2.1 Monitoring system
10.3.2.2 Monitored signatures
10.3.2.3 Process defects
10.3.3 Material extrusion processes
10.3.3.1 Monitoring systems
10.3.3.2 Monitored signatures
10.3.3.3 Process defects
10.3.4 Other additive manufacturing processes
10.3.4.1 Monitoring systems
10.3.4.2 Monitored signatures and process defects
10.4 Quality and feedback control
10.4.1 Process parameters
10.4.2 Signal processing and feedback control
10.4.2.1 Conventional methods
10.4.2.2 Machine learning approach
10.4.2.2.1 Learning methods
10.4.2.2.2 Learning algorithms
10.4.2.2.3 Learning steps
10.4.3 Applications of machine learning in additive manufacturing process and process monitoring
10.5 Standards and toolkits
10.5.1 Standards
10.5.2 Toolkits
10.6 Insights and future outlook
10.7 Summary
References
Index
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