Digital Anatomy: Applications of Virtual, Mixed and Augmented Reality

Foreword by Mark Billinghurst
Foreword by Nicholas Ayache
Acknowledgments
Contents
1 Introduction to Digital Anatomy
1.1 From Dissection to Digital Anatomy
1.2 Imaging and Reconstruction
1.3 Virtual and Augmented Reality and Applications
1.4 Digital Anatomy as an Educational Tool
References
2 From Anatomical to Digital Dissection: A Historical Perspective Since Antiquity Towards the Twenty-First Century
2.1 The Birth of Anatomy: The Knowledge of the Human Body from Antiquity to the Middle Ages
2.2 The Anatomical Evolution: Scientific Dissections During Renaissance and Enlightenment
2.3 The Clinic Meets Anatomy: Expansion of Anatomy in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
2.4 New Perspectives: Anatomical Knowledge and Technical Evolution in the Twentieth Century
2.5 Modern Surgery: Twenty-First Century Anatomy in the Operating Theater
2.6 Anatomy 2020: What is the Place of Anatomy Today?
2.7 Anatomy in the Age of Virtual, Mixed, Augmented Reality: Twenty-First Century Digital Dissections
2.8 Future Directions in Digital Anatomy: Twenty-First Century as a Stage of Innovative Virtual Dissections
References
3 A Tool for Collaborative Anatomical Dissection
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Related Work
3.3 Anatomy Studio
3.4 Evaluation
3.5 Results and Discussion
3.6 Lessons Learned
3.7 Conclusions
References
4 3D Modeling from Anatomical and Histological Slices: Methodology and Results of Computer-Assisted Anatomical Dissection
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.3 Results
4.4 Discussion
4.4.1 Limitations of the CAAD Technique
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Volume Rendering Technique from DICOM® Data Applied to the Study of Virtual Anatomy
5.1 Introduction
5.2 What Is a DICOM® Data?
5.3 What is a Volume Rendering Technique?
5.3.1 MDCT Volume Rendering Technique
5.4 Reconstruction Methods
5.4.1 Automatic Reconstruction Method
5.4.2 Semi-automatic Reconstruction Method
5.4.3 Manual Reconstruction Method
5.5 VRT Tools
5.5.1 Hounsfield Scale
5.5.2 Threshold
5.5.3 Automatic Tissue Removal
5.5.4 Smart Injection
5.5.5 Target Volume
5.5.6 Tissue Management
5.6 VRT Applied in MDCT Venography
5.6.1 PMDCT Protocols
5.6.2 PMDCT Enriched Rendered Volume (ERV)
5.7 Discussion
5.8 Conclusion
References
6 The Virtual Dissection Table: A 3D Atlas of the Human Body Using Vectorial Modeling from Anatomical Slices
6.1 Introduction
6.2 History of the Visible Human Projects
6.3 Virtual Reality Techniques: A New Human–Computer Interface for Education
6.3.1 Objectives
6.3.2 Materials and Methods
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Segmentation and 3D Printing of Anatomical Models from CT Angiograms
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Materials and Methods
7.3.1 3D Model Creation
7.3.2 3D Printing
7.3.3 Abdominal Aorta 3D Modeling and Printing
7.4 Discussion
7.5 Conclusion
References
8 3D Reconstruction from CT Images Using Free Software Tools
8.1 3D Reconstruction Pipeline
8.2 3D Reconstruction of Subject-Specific Anatomical Structures
8.3 Conclusions
References
9 Statistical Analysis of Organs' Shapes and Deformations: The Riemannian and the Affine Settings in Computational Anatomy
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Riemannian Manifolds
9.1.2 Statistics on Riemannian Manifolds
9.2 An Affine Symmetric Space Structure for Lie Groups
9.2.1 Affine Geodesics
9.2.2 An Affine Symmetric Space Structure for Lie Groups
9.2.3 Statistics in Affine Connection Spaces
9.2.4 The Case of Lie Groups with the Canonical Cartan–Schouten Connection
9.3 The SVF Framework for Shape and Deformation Modeling
9.3.1 Diffeomorphisms Parametrized by Stationary Velocity Fields
9.3.2 SVF-Based Diffeomorphic Registration with the Log-Demons
9.4 Modeling Longitudinal Deformation Trajectories in Alzheimer's Disease
9.4.1 Parallel Transport in Riemannian and Affine Spaces
9.4.2 Longitudinal Modeling of Alzheimer's Progression
9.5 The SVF Framework for Cardiac Motion Analysis
9.5.1 Parametric Diffeomorphisms with Locally Affine Transformations
9.5.2 Toward Intelligible Population-Based Cardiac Motion Features
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 High Fidelity 3D Anatomical Visualization of the Fibre Bundles of the Muscles of Facial Expression as In situ
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Methods
10.3 Results
10.4 Discussion
10.5 Conclusions
References
11 Collaborative VR Simulation for Radiation Therapy Education
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Background
11.3 LINACVR for Radiation Therapy Education
11.3.1 User Interface
11.3.2 Implementation and Architecture
11.4 Evaluation
11.5 Results
11.5.1 Quantitative Data
11.5.2 Question 1: What differences did you notice between this simulation and the real-world LINAC environment?
11.5.3 Question 2: How did this application compare to any other LINAC simulation programs you have used (e.g., VERT)?
11.5.4 Question 3: Are there any improvements you think could be made to this VR simulation?
11.5.5 Question 4: Do you have any other feedback about the simulation that you would like to give?
11.6 Discussion
11.7 Conclusions
References
12 Multi-Touch Surfaces and Patient-Specific Data
12.1 Motivation and Background
12.1.1 Medical Application Scenarios
12.1.2 Science Communication Scenarios
12.2 Data Acquisition
12.3 Rendering Volumetric Data
12.3.1 Volume Raycasting
12.3.2 Transfer Function
12.4 Touch Interaction with Patient-Specific Volumetric Data
12.4.1 Case: Visualization Table for Medical Education
12.4.2 Case: Visualization Table for Science Communication
12.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
13 Innovations in Microscopic Neurosurgery
13.1 The Neurosurgical Microscope from Past to Present
13.2 Robotic Applications for Neurosurgical Microscopes
13.3 High-Definition Exoscopes as Emerging Alternative
13.4 Augmented Reality in Neurosurgery
13.5 Hyperscope–Conceptualizing a Modern Visualization Tool for Neurosurgeons Integrating Exoscope, Endoscope, and Navigation in One System
13.6 Conclusion
References
14 Simulating Cataracts in Virtual Reality
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Human Vision and Impairments
14.2.1 Understanding Visual Acuity
14.2.2 Impacts on Vision in VR Headsets
14.2.3 Cataracts
14.3 Related Work on Simulating Vision Impairments
14.3.1 Goggles
14.3.2 2D Images
14.3.3 3D Simulations
14.3.4 Virtual Reality Simulations
14.3.5 AR Simulations
14.4 Building an Effects Pipeline for Complex Eye Disease Patterns
14.4.1 Reduce Visual Acuity
14.4.2 Reduce Contrast
14.4.3 Apply Color Shift
14.4.4 Simulate Dark Shadows
14.4.5 Simulate Sensitivity to Light
14.4.6 Gaze-Dependent Effects
14.5 Calibrating Effects for Different Users and Hardware Devices
14.5.1 Vision Capabilities of Users
14.5.2 Calibration Methodology
14.5.3 Calibrating Reduced Visual Acuity
14.5.4 Calibrating Reduced Contrast
14.5.5 Order of Effects
14.6 Summary
References
15 Patient-Specific Anatomy: The New Area of Anatomy Based on 3D Modelling
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Methods
15.3 Results
15.4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
16 Virtual and Augmented Reality for Educational Anatomy
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Fundamentals of VR and AR in Medical Education
16.2.1 Learning Theoretical Foundations
16.2.2 Model Generation
16.3 AR in Anatomy Education
16.3.1 AR in Medicine
16.3.2 AR in Education
16.3.3 Mobile AR in Anatomy Education
16.3.4 Interaction
16.3.5 Anatomy Education
16.4 VR in Anatomy Education
16.4.1 Semi-Immersive VR
16.4.2 Immersive VR
16.4.3 VR for Specific Anatomical Regions
16.5 Concluding Remarks
References
17 The Road to Birth: Using Digital Technology to Visualise Pregnancy Anatomy
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Road to Birth
17.3 A Collaborative Design Approach
17.4 Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR)
17.5 Mobile Health (SPT)
17.6 Interaction Design and Approach
17.7 Initial Testing and Evaluation
17.8 Discussion
17.9 Conclusion
References
18 Toward Constructivist Approach Using Virtual Reality in Anatomy Education
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Background and Prior Research
18.2.1 Challenges in Traditional Anatomy Education
18.2.2 Prior Research
18.2.3 Constructivist Approaches in Anatomy Education
18.2.4 Immersive Applications in Anatomy Education
18.3 Case Study One: Anatomy Builder VR
18.3.1 Overview of Anatomy Builder VR
18.3.2 Development of Anatomy Builder VR
18.3.3 Interaction Tasks in Anatomy Builder VR
18.3.4 User Study
18.4 Case Study TWO: Muscle Action VR
18.4.1 Overview of Muscle Action VR
18.4.2 Development of Muscle Action VR
18.4.3 User Experiences in Muscle Action VR
18.5 Conclusion
References
19 A Study of Mobile Augmented Reality for Motor Nerve Deficits in Anatomy Education
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Background
19.2.1 Visual-Spatial Ability and Critical Thinking for Deeper Anatomy Knowledge
19.2.2 Mobile Devices and Augmented Reality for Personalized Anatomy Education
19.2.3 Existing User Interfaces in AR
19.3 Application: InNervate AR
19.3.1 Design
19.3.2 Key Elements of Design
19.3.3 Development
19.3.4 Learning Objectives
19.4 User Study
19.4.1 Participants Recruitment
19.4.2 Study Procedure
19.4.3 Data Collection to Measure Application Effectiveness
19.4.4 Data Analysis
19.5 Results & Discussion
19.5.1 Participant Demographics
19.5.2 Participant Crystal Slicing Test Results
19.5.3 Participant Test of Logical Thinking Results
19.5.4 Participant Anatomical Knowledge Scores Results
19.5.5 User Experience with InNervate AR
19.5.6 User Interface Analysis
19.6 Conclusions and Summary
References