Detection of Optical Signals provides a comprehensive overview of important technologies for photon detection, from the X-ray through ultraviolet, visible, infrared to far-infrared spectral regions. It uniquely combines perspectives from many disciplines, particularly within physics and electronics, which are necessary to have a complete understanding of optical receivers.
This interdisciplinary textbook aims to:
- Guide readers into more detailed and technical treatments of readout optical signals
- Give a broad overview of optical signal detection including terahertz region and two-dimensional material
- Help readers further their studies by offering chapter-end problems and recommended reading.
This is an invaluable resource for graduate students in physics and engineering, as well as a helpful refresher for those already working with aerospace sensors and systems, remote sensing, thermal imaging, military imaging, optical telecommunications, infrared spectroscopy, and light detection.
Author(s): Antoni Rogalski, Zbigniew Bielecki
Series: Series in Optics and Optoelectronics
Publisher: CRC Press
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 550
City: Boca Raton
Cover
Half Title
Series Information
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Author Bios
1 Radiometry and Photometry
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Radiometric and Photometric Quantities and Units
1.3 Radiometric Quantities
1.4 Luminance
1.5 Blackbody Radiation
1.5.1 Planck’s Law
1.5.2 Wien’s Displacement Law
1.5.3 Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law
1.5.4 Exitance Contrast
1.6 Emissivity
1.7 Propagation of Optical Radiation
1.7.1 Propagation of Optical Radiation Through the Atmosphere
1.7.2 Transmission Range of Optical Materials
Problems
References
2 Characteristics of Optical Detectors
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Detector Parameters
2.2.1 Quantum Efficiency
2.2.2 Responsivity
2.2.3 Noise Equivalent Power
2.2.4 Detectivity
2.2.5 Response Speed
2.3 Detector Performance Limited By Photon Noise
2.4 Measurements of Detector Parameters
2.4.1 Responsivity Measurements
2.4.1.1 Measurement of the Spectral Responsivity of the Detector
2.4.1.2 Measurement of the Detector Responsivity to Blackbody Radiation
2.4.2 Noise Measurements
2.4.3 Measurement of Frequency Characteristics
2.4.4 Measurement of the Rise and Fall Time of the Detector Response
Problems
References
3 Noise Sources
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Photon Noise
3.2.1 Signal Flux Fluctuation Noise
3.2.2 Background Flux Fluctuation Noise
3.3 Johnson Noise
3.4 Shot Noise
3.5 Generation-Recombination Noise
3.6 1/f Noise
3.7 Temperature Noise
3.8 Microphonic Noise
3.9 Popcorn Noise
Problems
References
4 Fundamentals of Optical Detection
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Detectors
4.3 Physical Basics of Thermal Detectors Operation
4.3.1 Detectivity and Fundamental Limits
4.3.2 Thermopiles
4.3.3 Bolometers
4.3.4 Pyroelectric Detectors
4.4 Physical Principles of Photon Detectors
4.4.1 Radiation Absorption
4.4.2 Coupling of Radiation With Detectors
4.4.3 Generation and Recombination Mechanisms
4.5 Photoconductive Detectors
4.6 Photovoltaic Detectors
4.6.1 P-N Junction Photodiodes
4.6.2 Real Photodiodes
4.6.2.1 Generation-Recombination Current
4.6.2.2 Tunnelling Current
4.6.2.3 Surface Leakage Current
4.6.3 Response Time
4.7 P-I-N Photodiodes
4.8 Avalanche Photodiodes
4.9 Schottky Barrier Photodiodes
4.10 Metal-Semiconductor-Metal Photodiodes
4.11 Barrier Photodetectors
4.12 Photoemissive Detectors
4.12.1 Internal Photoemission Process
4.12.2 Silicide Photoemissive Detectors
Problems
References
5 Thermal Detectors
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Thermopiles
5.2.1 Thermoelectric Materials
5.2.2 Technology and Properties of Thermocouples
5.3 Bolometers
5.3.1 Metal Bolometers
5.3.2 Thermistors
5.3.3 Semiconductor Bolometers
5.3.4 Microbolometers
5.3.5 Superconducting Bolometers
5.3.6 High-Temperature Superconducting Bolometers
5.4 Pyroelectric Detectors
5.4.1 Responsivity
5.4.2 Noise and Detectivity
5.4.3 Pyroelectric Material Selection
5.4.4 Dielectric Bolometers
5.4.5 Pyroelectric Linear Arrays and Multi-Colour Detectors
Problems
References
6 Photoemissive Detectors
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Conventional Photocathodes
6.3 Negative Electron Affinity Devices
6.4 Photomultipliers
6.5 Microchannel Plates
6.6 Image Intensifier Systems
6.7 Schottky Barrier Photoemissive Detectors
Problems
References
7 Photon Detectors
7.1 Introduction
7.2 X-Ray and G-Ray Detectors
7.3 Ultraviolet Detectors
7.4 Visible Detectors
7.5 Infrared Photodetectors
7.5.1 Germanium Photodiodes
7.5.2 InGaAs Photodiodes
7.5.3 InSb-Based Photodiodes
7.5.4 HgCdTe Photodetectors
7.5.5 Lead Salt Photoconductors
7.5.6 Extrinsic Photoconductors
Problems
References
8 Quantum Well, Superlattice and Quantum Dot Photodetectors
8.1 Low Dimensional Solids: Background
8.2 Types of Superlattices
8.3 Superlattice Avalanche Photodiodes
8.4 GaAs/AlGaAs Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors
8.5 Type-II Superlattice Photodetectors
8.5.1 6.1 Å III-V Semiconductor Family
8.5.2 P-I-N Photodiodes
8.5.3 Barrier Photodetectors
8.6 Quantum Dot Photodetectors
8.6.1 Self-Assembled Quantum Dots
8.6.2 Colloidal Quantum Dots
8.7 Quantum Cascade Photodetectors
Problems
References
9 2D Material Photodetectors
9.1 Relevant Properties of Graphene and Related 2D Materials
9.1.1 Graphene
9.1.2 2D Crystalline Materials
9.2 2D Material-Based Detectors
9.3 2D Material-Based Detector Performance
9.3.1 Photon Detectors
9.3.2 Thermal Detectors
References
10 Terahertz Detectors
10.1 Room Temperature THz Detectors
10.1.1 Schottky Barrier Diodes
10.1.2 Field Effect Transistor and CMOS-Based Detectors
10.1.3 Microbolometers
10.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor Detectors
10.3 Semiconductor Bolometers
10.4 Pair Braking Photon Detectors
10.5 Superconducting HEB and TES Detectors
10.6 Far-Infrared Instruments for Astronomy
References
11 Direct and Advanced Detection Systems
11.1 Selection of Active Amplification Elements
11.2 Voltage Preamplifiers
11.3 Transimpedance Preamplifiers
11.4 Charge Preamplifiers
11.5 First Stages of Photoreceivers
11.5.1 Photoreceivers With Photon Detectors
11.5.2 Photoreceivers With Thermal Detectors
11.6 Noise Models of First Stages of Optical Detection Systems
11.7 Maximisation of Signal to Noise Ratio in Photoreceivers
11.8 Monolithic and Hybrid Photoreceivers
11.9 Photon Counters
11.10 Advanced Methods of Signal Detection
11.10.1 Signal Averaging
11.10.2 Phase Sensitive Detection
11.10.3 Boxcar Detection Systems
11.10.4 Coherent Detection
Problems
References
12 Focal Plane Arrays
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Small Arrays
12.3 Arrays of Detectors With Signal Processing in the Focal Plane
12.3.1 Monolithic Arrays
12.3.2 Hybrid Arrays
12.4 Basic Parameters of Detector Arrays
12.4.1 Noise Equivalent Charge
12.4.2 Noise Equivalent Difference Temperature
12.4.3 Modulation Transfer Function
12.4.4 Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference
12.4.5 Other Parameters
12.4.5.1 Fill Factor (FF)
12.4.5.2 Dynamic Range (DR)
12.4.5.3 Crosstalk
12.5 CCD Image Sensors
12.5.1 CCD Array Operation
12.5.2 Types of CCD Devices
12.5.3 Signal Readout Techniques Used in CCDs
12.5.3.1 Floating Diffusion Circuit
12.5.3.2 Correlated Double Sampling Circuit
12.5.3.3 Floating Gate Circuit
12.5.4 Read-Out Circuits Architecture
12.5.4.1 Full-Frame CCD
12.5.4.2 Frame-Transfer CCD
12.5.4.3 Interline Transfer CCD
12.5.4.4 Frame-Interline Transfer CCD
12.5.4.5 Image Sensor Formats
12.6 CMOS Devices
12.6.1 Types of Pixels
12.6.2 Architecture of CMOS Imaging Sensors
12.6.3 Signal Readout Circuits in CMOS Sensors
12.6.3.1 SI Circuits
12.6.3.2 SFD Circuits
12.6.3.3 Capacitor Feedback Transimpedance Amplifier
12.6.3.4 Injection Circuits
12.6.3.5 MOSFET Gate Modulation Circuits
12.6.4 Readout Circuit Architecture for CMOS Sensors
12.6.5 CMOS Versus CCD
12.7 Representative Focal Plane Arrays
12.7.1 Butting Versus Stitching Techniques
12.7.2 Detector Operating Temperature
12.7.3 Ultraviolet and Visible Arrays
12.7.4 Microbolometer Arrays
12.7.5 Infrared Photon Detector Arrays
12.7.5.1 InGaAs Arrays
12.7.5.2 InSb Arrays
12.7.5.3 HgCdTe Arrays
12.7.5.4 Lead Salt Arrays
12.7.5.5 QWIP Arrays
12.7.5.6 Barrier and Type-II Superlattice Arrays
Problems
References
Index
