Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
FOREWORD
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
TESTIMONIALS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1 Launch Vehicles: Introduction, Operation, and the Design Process
1.1 Introduction to Launch Vehicles
1.2 Anatomy of a Launch Vehicle
1.2.1 Surface-Launched Vehicle
1.2.2 Air-Launched Vehicle
1.3 The Phases of Launch and Ascent
1.3.1 Vertical Climb
1.3.2 Roll Program
1.3.3 Pitch Program and Vehicle Turning
1.3.4 Strap-on Separation
1.3.5 Max-Air / Max- q / Buffet
1.3.6 First-Step Shutdown
1.3.7 Staging and Separation
1.3.8 Upper-Step Ignition
1.3.9 Payload Fairing Jettison
1.3.10 Upper-Step Shutdown
1.4 Typical Launch Vehicle Mission and Mission Elements
1.5 The Typical Launch Vehicle Design Process
1.6 Launch Sites
1.7 Launch Site Selection Criteria
1.7.1 Continental U.S. Launch Sites
1.7.2 Other U.S. Launch Sites
1.7.3 European Launch Sites
1.7.4 Other Launch Sites
1.8 The Space Industry
1.9 Summary
References
Further Reading
1.10 Assignment: Launch Vehicle System Report
2 A Technical History of Space Launch Vehicles
2.1 Rockets in the Early 20th Century
2.2 World War II and the Development of the V-2
2.3 The Cold War, ICBMs, and the First Space Launch Vehicles
2.3.1 Soviet and Russian Developments
R-7 Semyorka Soyuz Evolution
Proton
Zenit
Angara
2.3.2 U.S. Developments
2.3.2.1 The Vanguard
2.3.2.2 The U. S. Ballistic Missiles
2.3.3 The Red stone IRBM and Jupiter Launch Vehicle
2.3.4 The Jupiter A and Juno SLV
2.3.5 Thor IRBM
2.3.6 Atlas ICBM
Centaur Upper Step
2.3.7 Titan ICBM
2.3.8 Minuteman ICBM Family
2.3.9 Pea cekeeper
2.3.10 Minotaur and Taurus
2.3.11 Polaris, Poseidon, and Trident
2.3.12 Scout
2.3.13 Pegasus
2.4 The Moon Race
2.5 The Space Shuttle
NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS)
2.6 Launch Vehicle Oddities and Dead-Ends
2.6.1 German A-9 / A-10 Amerika
2.6.2 North American X-15
2.6.3 McDonnell Douglas DC-X
2.6.4 Lockheed Martin X-33 VentureStar
2.7 Other Launch Vehicles from Around the World
2.7.1 Chinese Launch Vehicles
2.7.2 European Efforts
2.7.3 India
2.7.4 Japan
2.8 Commercial Launch Vehicles: The Future?
2.8.1 SpaceX Launch Vehicles
Falcon 1
Falcon 9
Starship / Super Heavy
2.8.2 Vulcan Centaur: A Competitor to Falcon 9?
2.8.3 Another Competitor to Falcon 9?
2.9 Small Launch Vehicles
2.9.1 The Rocket Lab Electron
2.9.2 The Virgin Orbit LauncherOne
2.9.3 The Astra Rocket 3?
2.9.4 Firefly Alpha
References
Further Reading
3 Missions, Orbits, and Energy Requirements
3.1 Launch Vehicle Requirements Derive from Payload and Mission
3.1.1 LV Ascent Losses
3.1.2 LV Maneuvering Requirements
3.1.3 LV Performance Gains
3.2 Orbits, Orbital Parameters, and Trajectories
3.2.1 Introduction to Orbits
3.2.2 Classic Orbital Elements
3.3 Spacecraft Mission Orbits and Trajectories
3.3.1 Required Orbital Injection Speed
3.3.1.1 Circular Orbit Speed
3.3.1.2 Elliptical Orbit Speed
3.3.1.3 Escape Orbit Speed
3.4 Required Energy to Be Delivered for Orbit
3.4.1 Benefits from the Rotation of the Earth
3.4.2 Estimating Gravity Loss
3.4.2.1 Estimating Gravity Loss: Conservation of Energy
3.4.2.2 Estimating Gravity Loss: Statistical Estimation
3.4.2.3 Estimating Gravity Loss: Exact Methods
3.4.3 Estimating Aerodynamic Drag Loss
3.4.4 Drag Loss: Exact Method
3.4.4.1 Thoughts on Minimizing Drag Losses
3.4.5 Propulsion Losses
3.4.6 Application to Multiple Steps
3.4.7 Steering Losses
3.4.8 Summing Up the Losses
3.4.9 Combined Launch Vehicle Performance Estimation
3.5 Determining the Launch Vehicle Velocity Vector
3.5.1 Determining the Required Launch Vector
3.5.2 Air-Launch Systems
3.6 Direct Orbit
3.6.1 Launch Directly East
3.6.2 Launch in Other Directions
3.6.3 Calculation of Burnout Azimuth Angles
3.6.4 Polar and Retrograde Orbits
3.7 Desired Inclination Less than Launch Latitude
3.7.1 Launch Vehicle Lateral Maneuver
3.7.2 Orbital Inclination Change
3.8 Launch Vehicle Performance Curves
3.9 Launch Windows
3.9.1 Launch Window Duration I: Orbital Mi ssions
3.9.2 Launch Window Duration II: Pork Chop Plots
3.9.3 Launch Window Example: Galileo
References
3.10 Example Problems
Required Vehicle Performance
4 Propulsion
4.1 Combustion
4.2 The Thrust Equation and Rocket Equation
4.2.1 Exhaust Velocity
4.2.2 Rocket Performance: Total and Specific Impulse
4.3 The Rocket Equation
4.3.1 Propellant Mass Fraction and Total Impulse
4.3.2 Thrust-to-weight ratio and burn time
4.3.3 Summary of Rocket Engine Parameters
4.4 Solid-Propellant Motors
4.4.1 Basic Configuration
4.4.2 SRM Types and Burn Rates
4.4.3 Thrust Profile and Grain Shape
4.4.4 SRM Propellant Additives
4.4.5 SRM Exhaust Toxicity
4.5 Liquid-Propellant Engines
4.6 Examples of Rocket Engine Performance
4.6.1 SRM Performance
4.6.2 Liquid Engine Performance
4.7 Rocket Engine Power Cycles
4.7.1 Gas Generator Cycle
4.7.2 Staged Combustion Cycle
4.7.3 Expander Cycle
4.7.4 Electric Pump-Fed Cycle
4.7.5 Pressure-Fed Cycle
4.8 Aerospike Engines
4.9 Hybrid Rockets
References
4.10 Example Problems
5 Launch Vehicle Performance and Staging
5.1 The Three Categories of Launch Vehicle Mass
5.2 Finding a Rocket’s Speed Change in Free Space
5.3 Burnout Speed
5.4 Single-Stage-to-Orbit
5.5 Staging
5.5.1 Types of Launch Vehicle Staging
5.6 Calculation of Speed Supplied by a Multistage Rocket
5.7 Payload Ratio
5.8 Unrestricted Staging
Pitfalls of the Lagrangian “Optimization” Procedure
5.9 Gross Mass vs. Staging Speed for Families of TSTO LVs with Differing Propellants
5.10 All-Hydrogen Saturn V?
5.11 Parallel Burns and Staging
5.11.1 Parallel Staging Performance
5.11.2 Parallel Staging Procedures
5.11.3 Parallel Stage Enhanced Performance
5.12 Launch Vehicle Design Sensitivities
5.12.1 Tradeoff Ratio Calculation
5.12.2 How Tradeoffs / Sensitivity Derivatives Are Used
5.12.3 Inert Mass Tradeoff Ratio
5.12.4 Propellant Mass Tradeoff Ratio
5.12.5 Rocket Engine Specific Impulse Tradeoff
5.12.6 Improved Saturn IB Performance by Adding Propellant
5.12.7 Space Shuttle Tradeoff Ratios
5.12.7.1 A Practical Application of Tradeoff Ratios: Space Shuttle Application 1
5.12.7.2 Shuttle Application 2: Carrying Out Missions to ISS
5.12.7.3 Shuttle Application 3: High-Performance SRBs
5.12.7.4 Falcon 9 Application: Add Propellant Without Adding Structure Mass!
5.12.8 Another Method to Calculate Tradeoff Ratios
5.13 Some Useful Results: Determining Component Mass Values
5.14 Summary
References
5.15 Exercises
Assignment: Launch Vehicle Performance Problems
6 Ascent Trajectory Analysis and Optimization
6.1 Vertical Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere
6.1.1 Gravity Loss
6.1.2 Burnout Altitude
6.1.3 Coast After Burnout
6.1.4 Summary
6.2 Inclined Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere
6.2.1 Equations for In clined Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere
6.2.2 Vertical Flight in Atmosphere, with Gravity
6.2.3 Thrusting Equations
6.2.4 Coasting Equations
6.3 General Flight with Gravity, Atmosphere Effects
6.3.1 Launch Vehicle Boost Trajectory Coordinate System
6.3.2 Launch Vehicle Equations of Motion
6.3.3 Forces on a Launch Vehicle due to Aerodynami c, Thrust, and Steering Forces
6.3.4 Torques on a Launch Vehicle Due to Aerodynamic, Thrust, and Steering Forces
6.4 Aerodynamics of Launch Vehicles
6.4.1 Assessment of Launch Vehicle Drag
6.4.2 Assessment of Launch Vehicle Lift
6.4.3 Ascent Aerodynamic Forces, Propulsion Models, and Gravity
6.4.4 Speed or Energy Losses During Launch
6.4.5 Changing the Flight Path Angle \gamma
6.4.6 Events During Liftoff and Ascent
6.4.7 The Gravity-Turn Trajectory
6.4.8 Other Methods of Guidance
6.4.9 The General Ascent Problem
6.5 Getting to Orbit
6.6 Launch Vehicle Trajectory Simulation
6.6.1 Notes on Numerical Integration
6.7 Trajectory Optimization
6.7.1 Definition and Purpose of Trajectory Optimization
6.7.2 The First Optimization Problem: The Brachistochrone or Shortest Time Problem
6.7.3 Optimization Software
6.8 Some Examples of Launch Profiles and Trajectories
6.8.1 LV Example: Delta III Launch to Geostationary Transfer Orbit
6.8.2 What Is Lofting, and Why Does It Occur?
6.8.3 The Space Shuttle Ascent: Complex, Many Constraints, Nonoptimal Trajectories
6.9 Some Typical Launch Trajectories
6.9.1 Shuttle STS-122 Ascent Trajectory
6.9.2 Saturn V Ascent Trajectory
6.9.3 Saturn V Second Step (S-II) Variable Mixture-Ratio Scheme
6.9.4 Mu-3-S-2 (Japan)
6.9.5 Air-Launched Pegasus
6.10 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Online Simulation Software
Trajectory Data
6.11 Exercises
1. Apollo Lunar Module Ascent Simulation
2. Large Hydrolox Single-Stage-to-Orbit Simulation
3. Launch Vehicle Trajectory Optimization Using GPOPS-II Software
7 Space Launch Vehicle Structures and Layout
7.1 The Thor IRBM
7.2 The Delta II: Evolved from Thor
7.3 Atlas Takes Tank Structure Principle to Extremes
7.4 The Mighty Saturns
7.5 The Saturn V
7.6 Another Way to Save Mass: Tank Dome Shapes
7.7 Spherical vs Cylindrical Tanks: Which Have Less Mass?
7.8 The Space Shuttle
7.9 Delta IV
7.10 Engine Configurations and Other Design Layout Considerations
7.10.1 Engine Configurations
7.10.2 Launch Vehicle Symmetry
7.10.3 Attachment of Strap-Ons and External Items
7.11 Payload Accommodations
7.11.1 Payload Attach Fitting
7.11.2 Ridesharing
7.11.3 Payload Fairings
7.11.4 Asymmetric Payload Fairings
7.12 Launch Vehicle Structure Types
7.12.1 Skin and Stringer Construction
7.12.2 Sandwich Construction
7.12.3 Integrally Machined Stiffeners
7.13 Structural Materials
7.13.1 Metallic Materials
7.13.2 Composite Materials
7.13.3 Miracle Materials
References
Further Reading
8 Sizing, Inboard Profile, Mass Properties
8.1 Inboard Profile
8.1.1 Vehicle Sizing and Layout Process
8.2 Vehicle or Step Mass Calculations
8.3 Liquid Propulsion System Real-Life Additions to Mass and Volume
8.3.1 Liquid Propulsion System “Real- Life” Additions
Liquid Propellant Mass Buildup
Startup Liquid Propellant Mass
Residual Liquid Propellant Mass
Total Liquid Propellant Mass
Individual Liquid Propellant Masses
8.3.2 Needed Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes
“Ideal” Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes
Needed Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes
8.3.3 Other Liquid Propellant Volume Changes to Consider
Propellant Densification
Volume Changes Due to Pressurization
Liquid Propellant Boil-off
Cryogenic Upper-Stage Engine Startup
Non-Aluminum, Nonlinear CTE-Material Tanks
8.3.4 Tank Sizing
Volume of “Ideal” Tanks
Some Comments on Tank Shape and Sizing
Other Propulsion System Factors Influencing Vehicle Layout
8.4 Other Launch Vehicle Components
8.5 Solid Propulsion System Sizing
8.5.1 Solid Propulsion System Initial Sizing
8.5.2 Solid Propulsion System With \delta v Specified
8.5.3 Solid Propulsion System With Specified Total Impulse
8.5.4 Solid Propellant Volume Calculation
Solid Propulsion System Real-Life Additions to Volume
Solid Propulsion System Volume
8.6 Comments about Upper Steps and Payload Fairings
8.6.1 Upper Step Layouts
8.6.2 Payload Fairings
8.7 Mass Estimation Process
8.7.1 Estimation of Liquid Propellant Tank Masses
8.7.2 Cryogenic Tank Insulation Mass
8.7.3 Masses of Thin-Shelled Structures
8.7.3.1 Use of Composite Materials
8.7.4 Masses of Other Structures and Components
8.7.5 Rocket Engine and Thrust Structure Mass Estimation
Engine Mass
Thrust Structure
Gimbal Mass
8.7.6 Mass of Other Items
Payload Attach Fitting / Launch Vehicle Adapter
Avionics Mass
Electrical Wiring
Summary
8.7.7 Engine Dimensioning Calculations
8.7.7.1 Solid Propulsion Motor Mass Estimation
8.7.7.2 Mass Estimation for More Complex Shapes
8.7.7.3 Mass Properties
8.7.7.4 Coordinate Systems
8.7.7.5 Mass Properties Calculations
8.7.7.6 Some Comments About Engine Selection
8.7.7.7 Moment of Inertia Calculations
8.8 Calculation of Tank or Shell Thicknesses
8.8.1 A Vehicle Loaded with Propellants
References
Additional references
8.9 Exercises: Sizing, Inboard Profile, and Mass Properties of TSTO LV
9 Ground and Flight Loads and Analysis
9.1 Launch Vehicle Load Cases
9.1.1 Transportation Loads
9.1.2 Calculation of Loads
9.1.3 Distributed Loads
9.1.4 Axial Forces and Horizontal Drag Loads
9.1.5 Ground Wind Load Calculation
9.1.5.1 Ground Winds
9.1.5.2 Simplified Ground Winds Load Calculation Procedure
9.1.5.3 Calculation of Ground Axial Loads
9.1.5.4 Ground Wind Loads Analysis on Saturn V
9.1.5.5 Calculation of Shear Forces
9.1.5.6 Calculation of Internal Moments
9.1.5.7 Calculation of Axial Loads
9.1.5.8 Summary of Ground Loads Calculation
9.1.5.9 Notes on Ground Load Calculations
9.1.6 Calculation of Flight Loads
9.1.6.1 Do Launch Vehicles Really Fly at an Angle of Attack?
9.1.6.2 Calculation of Angle of Attack
9.1.6.3 Shear, Bending, and Axial Loads in Flight Due to Wind Shear
9.1.6.4 Obtaining Aerodynamic Force Data
Comments on Nose Cone Shapes and Conical Flares (Tapering Skirts)
9.1.6.5 Launch Vehicle Pressure Coefficients
9.1.6.6 Calculation of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments on Vehicle
9.2 Example: Max-q Air Load Calculation for Saturn V / Apollo 11 (SA-506)
9.2.1 Saturn V’s Mass at max-q
9.2.2 Acceleration Magnitude During max-q
9.2.3 Saturn V Side Air Loads
9.2.4 Saturn V Supersonic Fin Lift Anal ysis
9.2.5 Lateral Acceleration Due to Air Loads and Engine Gimbaling
9.2.6 Inertia Relief
9.2.7 Did the Saturn V Need Fins?
9.2.8 Saturn V Max-q Axial Loads
9.3 Load Curves Rules of Thumb
9.4 Global vs. Local Loads
9.5 Real Calculation of Vehicle Loads
9.6 Dealing with High-Altitude Winds
9.7 Design Issues for Ascent Phase
9.8 Load Relief During Launch
9.9 Endnote
References
Further Reading
9.10 Exercises
Problem 1: Ground Wind Load s, Shear, Moment, and Axial Load Calculation
Problem 2: Launch Vehicle Max-q Flight Loads Calculations
10 Launch Vehicle Stress Analysis
10.1 Strength and Stress Analysis
10.1.1 Stress (and Loads) Vocabulary
10.1.1.1 Types of Stress
10.1.1.2 Stress Subscripts and Material Properties
10.1.2 Forces, Geometr y, and Moments
10.2 Stress Deter mination Using External Loads
10.2.1 Cylinder Analysis Approach
10.2.1.1 Calculation of a Cylinder’s Cross- Sectional Area
10.2.1.2 Calculation of a Cylinder Cross-Section’s Area Moment of Inertia I
10.2.1.3 Stress Calculation
10.2.1.4 Minimum Gauge Issues
10.2.2 A Design Consideration: Relative Tank Position
10.3 Allowable Stresses Based on Stability (Buckling) Criteria
10.3.1 Critical Stresses and Buckling
10.3.1.1 Stability of Flared Skirt or Frustum
10.3.2 Ways to Increase Allowable Critical Axial Stress
10.3.3 Structural Methods to Increase Critical Axial Stress
10.4 Effect of Internal Pressure on Stresses
10.4.1 Internal Pressure Adds Load Capability
10.4.1.1 Pressure-Stabilized Structures
10.4.1.2 Bulkhead Reversal
10.4.1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure
10.4.2 Other Factors to Consider Concerning Internal Pressure
10.4.2.1 Geysering
10.4.2.2 Other Layout Considerations
10.5 Determining the Overall Stress State
10.5.1 Stress Analysis Summary
10.6 Real World Detailed Stress Analysis
10.6.1 This Is Just the Start of Stress Anal ysis
10.6.2 The Three Ingredients Needed for Stress Analysis
10.6.3 Finite-Element Modeling
10.6.4 FEM Updates
10.7 Summary: Simple Rules for LV Structures
Further Reading
10.8 Exercises
Homework Problem 1: Aluminum Beverage Container Buckling Stress Calculations
Homework Problem 2: LV Stress Calculations
11 Launch Vehicle and Payload Environments: Vibration, Shock, Acoustic, and Thermal Issues
11.1 Mechanical Loads
11.1.1 Engine Startups and Cutoffs
11.1.2 Separation Events
11.1.3 Pyrotechnic Shocks
11.2 Acoustic Environment
11.2.1 Ignition Overpressure
11.2.2 High Acoustic Environments 1: Liftoff
11.2.3 High Acoustic Environments 2: Flight
11.2.4 Buffet Loads
11.2.4.1 Launch Vehicle Buffet Pressure Spectra
11.3 Launch Vehicle Thermal Environment
11.3.1 Base Heating
11.3.2 Convective Thermal Environment During Boost
11.3.3 Saturn V Flow Separation
11.3.4 Thermal Protection Systems
11.4 Payload Environment: The Spacecraft’s Point of View
11.5 Spacecraft Structure Design Verification Process
11.5.1 Coupled-Loads Analysis
11.5.2 After Coupled Loads Analysis: What Happens?
11.5.3 Payload Natural Frequencies != LV Natural Frequencies
11.5.4 Payload Isolation: Helps with Much of the Shock and Vibration
11.5.5 Free-Free Natural Frequency Calculations
11.5.6 LV Frequency Considerations
11.5.6.1 Example Stiffness Design Factors: Atlas V
11.5.7 Payload Acoustic Environments
Acoustic Suppression
11.5.8 Payload Pressure Environment
11.5.9 Payload Thermal Loads
11.5.10 When Should the PLF Be Jettisoned?
11.5.11 On-Orbit Thermal Environment
11.6 Summary
References
Further Reading
11.7 Exercise
12 Launch Vehicle Stability and Control; LV Vibration and Instabilities
12.1 Guidance and Navigation vs Attitude Control
12.1.1 Vehicle Coordinate System
12.1.2 Rotations
12.1.2.1 Euler Angles
12.1.2.2 Quaternions
12.1.2.3 Measuring Rotation Angles and Calculating Attitude and Position
12.1.2.3.1 Method 1: Inertial/Stabilized Platform
12.1.2.3.2 Method 2: Inertial Measurement Unit
12.1.2.3.3 Method 3: Global Positioning System (GPS)
12.2 Stability and Control
12.2.1 Locating Center of Pressure
12.2.2 LV Flight Control System Elements
12.2.2.1 Thrust Vector Control
12.2.2.1.1 Types of Control Effectors (Actuators)
12.2.2.1.2 Using Engine Exhaust for Steering
12.2.2.1.3 Aerodynamic Controls for Steering
12.2.2.1.4 Typical Thrust Vector Control System Requirements
12.2.2.1.4.1 Thrust Vector Control System Time Response
12.2.2.1.4.2 Thrust Vector Control System Angular Motion
12.2.2.2 Engine and Propellant Tank Positioning
Engine Positioning
Propellant Tank Positioning
12.2.2.3 Reducing Actuation Loads
12.2.3 Three Axis Control
12.3 Controlled Vehicle Equations of Motion
12.3.1 Vehicle Coordinate Systems
12.3.2 Trajectory Variable Definitions
12.3.3 Vehicle Force and Torque Definitions
12.3.4 Vehicle Steering
12.3.5 Vehicle Equations of Motion: Translation
12.3.5.1 Dealing with Equations of Motion and Block Diagrams
12.3.5.2 Pitch-Plane Motion Simplifications
12.3.5.3 Understanding Poles and Zeros
12.3.6 Control System Performance Rules of Thumb
12.3.7 Varying Parameters, Including Aerodynamic Coefficients and Structural Dynamics
12.3.8 Engine Angle Response to Wind Shear
12.4 Launch Vehicle Structural Vibrations and Instabilities
12.4.1 Flexible Structure, Body Bending
12.4.2 Tail Wags Dog Motion
12.4.3 Propellant Slosh
12.4.3.1 Modeling Slosh Effects
12.4.3.2 Alleviating Slosh
12.5 Propulsion Instabilities
12.5.1 Pogo
12.5.1.1 Pogo Instability Explained
12.5.1.2 Pogo Suppression
12.5.2 Resonant Burn Oscillations
12.6 Summary
References
Further Reading
12.7 Exercises: Vibration and TVC Analysis
13 Launch Vehicle Manufacturing
13.1 Launch Vehicle Fabrication
13.2 Saturn I Second Step (S-IV) Manufacturing Process
13.3 Composite Structure Fabrication
13.4 Manufacturing: The Future
13.5 Vehicle Stacking and Assembly
13.6 Postassembly Activities
13.7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Recommended Videos
14 Launch Vehicle Systems and Launch Pad Facilities
Internal Systems of Launch Vehicle
14.1 Saturn V S-IC Fuel Systems
14.1.1 Types of Valves
14.1.2 Saturn S-IC Fuel Feed and Control
14.1.3 Saturn S-IC Fuel Conditioning (Bubbling) System
14.1.4 Saturn S-IC Fuel Level Sensing
14.2 Launch Vehicle Pressurization
14.2.1 Saturn S-IC Fuel Pressurization
14.2.2 Saturn V S-IC LOx Pressurization
14.3 Saturn V S-IC Oxidizer Systems
14.3.1 Saturn V S-IC LOx Delivery System
14.3.2 Saturn V S-IC LOx Conditioning
14.4 Saturn V Mechanical Services
14.4.1 Saturn V S-IC Pressurized Gas Control System
14.4.2 Saturn V S-IC Fluid Power System
14.4.3 Saturn V S-IC Environmental Control System
14.5 Staging and Separation Systems
14.5.1 Pyrotechnic (Explosive) Devices
14.5.2 Saturn V Staging and Separation Systems
14.5.3 Saturn V S-IC Retrorockets and S-II Step Ullage
14.5.4 Payload Fairing (Shroud) Separation
14.5.5 Alternatives to Explosive Separation Systems
14.5.6 Non-Pyrotechnic Fairing Separation
14.5.7 Payload Fairing Separation Dynamics
14.5.8 More Separation Mechanisms
Explosive Bolts
Explosive Nuts
14.5.9 Clamp Bands
14.6 Launch Vehicle Avionics
14.6.1 Data System
14.6.2 RF and Communications System
14.6.3 Guidance, Navigation, and Control
14.6.4 Range Safety System /Flight Termination System
14.6.5 Electrical Power System
14.6.5.1 S-IC Electrical System
14.6.5.2 S-IC Visual Instrumentation
14.6.6 Instrumentation and Telemetry
14.6.6.1 Operation of Telemetry Systems
14.6.6.2 The Telemetry Process: Getting Information to the Ground
14.6.6.3 Multiplexing of Data: Commutation
14.6.6.4 Decommutation of Telemetered Data
14.6.6.5 Data Errors Introduced by Aliasing
14.6.6.6 Quantization Error
14.6.6.7 Effective TM System Operations
14.7 Launch Pad Facilities and Ground Accommodations
14.7.1 Vehicle Access
14.7.2 Logistics at Base of Saturn V
14.7.2.1 Tail Service Connections
14.7.2.2 Swing Arm Umbilicals
14.7.2.3 More on Umbilicals
14.7.2.4 Pad Support Subsystems
14.7.2.5 Propellant Loading Operations
14.7.2.6 Lightning Protection
14.8 Launch and Liftoff Considerations
14.8.1 Staggered Engine Ignition Reduces Loads
14.8.2 Vehicle Hold-Downs and Release Mechanisms
14.8.2.1 Saturn V Hold-Down and Release Mechanism
14.8.2.2 How Was the Space Shuttle Held Down?
14.8.3 Liftoff Mechanical Loads
14.8.4 Taking Care of Loose Propellants
14.8.5 Water at Launch to Reduce Overpressure
14.8.6 Exhaust and Flame Bucket
14.8.6.1 Unintended Suborbital Flight
14.8.7 Liftoff Service Tower Clearance
14.8.8 Tracking and Radar
14.9 Vehicle Recovery and Reuse
14.9.1 Recovery Considerations
14.9.2 Payload Fairing Recovery
14.9.3 First Step Recovery
14.9.4 Upper Step Recovery
14.9.5 Summary of Recovery Options
14.10 Summary
References
Further Reading
15 Testing, Reliability, and Redundancy
15.1 Testing
15.1.1 Levels of Testing
15.1.2 Classical Approach to Testing
15.1.3 Protoflight Testing Approach
15.1.4 Testing vs Failure Mechanisms
15.1.5 Types of Testing
15.1.6 Typical Test Sequence
15.1.7 Component Testing
15.1.8 Wind Tunnel Testing for Ground Wind Response
15.1.9 Wind Tunnel Testing for Flight
15.1.10 Mass Properties
15.1.11 Structural Testing
15.1.12 Modal / Vibration Testing
15.1.13 Shock Testing
15.1.14 Slosh Testing
15.1.15 Radio Frequen cy Testing
15.1.16 Acoustic Testing
15.1.16.1 Acoustic Pressure Test Levels
15.1.16.2 Acoustic Test Criteria
15.1.16.3 Example Acoustic Test
15.1.17 Software Is Becoming More and More Important
15.1.17.1 Software Complexity
15.1.17.2 Software Testing
15.1.17.3 Software Reviews Pay Off
15.1.18 External Acoustic Testing
15.1.19 Hot Gas and Exhaust Plume Testing
15.1.20 Acoustic Suppression Testing
15.1.21 Full-Scale Engine Testing
15.1.22 Result of Successful Testing Sequence
15.1.23 After Hardware Delivery
15.1.24 Hot-Fire Test
15.1.25 Flight Test
15.1.26 Summary of Testing Practices for LVs
15.2 Redundancy
15.2.1 Various Types of Redundancy
15.2.2 Redundancy: Fluids and Hydraulics
15.2.3 Redundancy: Electronics
15.2.4 Reliability
15.2.5 Redundancy Example: Heater Strip
15.2.6 Reliability for k-Out-of-n Systems
15.2.6.1 Example 1: 3-of-5 Engine Rocket Reliability
15.2.6.2 Example 2: 7-of-9 Engine Rocket Reliability
15.2.6.3 Actual Engine Reliability
15.2.6.4 Payload Fairing Separation System Reliability
15.3 Summary
References
Recommended Reading
15.4 Exercise
16 Failures, Lessons Learned, Flight Termination Systems, and Aborts
16.1 Causes of Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV) Failures
16.1.1 Summary of Launch Failure Findings: Trends
16.2 Failure Rates of Launch Vehicles
16.2.1 Design Implications of Multiple Engines
16.3 Some Examples of Launch Vehicle Failures
16.3.1 The Challenger Incident: A Propulsion System Failure
16.3.2 Common Mistakes to Look For
The Five Questions
16.3.2.1 Question 1: Could the Sign Be Wrong?
Titan IV B32 /Centaur (M ILSTA R II-1) Failure
16.3.2.2 Question 2: How Will Last-Minute Configuration Changes Be Veri fied?
What Is Configuration Management?
Titan IVB/IUS Failure, April 1999
16.3.2.3 Question 3: Can the Vehicle Survive a Computer Crash?
Computer Crash Example 1: Ariane 5 First Flight Failure
Delta III: Missing? What Happened?
16.3.2.4 Question 4: Is the Circuit Overcurrent Protection Adequate?
16.3.2.5 Question 5: Can Pyros Cause Unexpected Damage?
16.3.3 The Newest Failure Category: Incorrect Mass Properties
16.4 Additional Ways to Learn from Others’ Mistakes
16.4.1 Researching History
16.4.2 Reluctance to Share Failure Information
16.5 Range Safety and Flight Termination Systems
16.5.1 Why We Have Flight Termination Systems
16.5.2 Typical Flight Termination System Make-Up
16.5.3 Method of Termination
16.5.4 Range Safety Network Using GPS
16.5.5 FTS System Details
16.5.6 Abort Modes
16.5.7 Ascent Shaping for Abort of Crewed Launch Vehicles
16.5.8 Ascent Shaping for Atlas-Centaur and Starliner Capsule
16.6 Best Practices to Avoid Failure
16.7 Summary
References
Recommended Reading
17 Launch Vehicle Financial Analysis and Project Management
17.1 Stages of Mission Development
17.2 The Design Cycle
17.3 Design Decision Making
17.4 Cost Engineering
17.4.1 Cost-Estimating Relationships
17.4.2 Cost-Estimating Software
17.5 Cost Considerations
17.5.1 Examples of Launch Vehicle Costs
17.5.2 Inflation Factors
17.5.3 Recommendations for Initial Cost Estimation
17.6 Cost Modeling Examples
17.6.1 Atlas V 401 Cost Breakdown
17.6.2 TRANSCOST Cost-Estimating Relationships
17.6.3 TRANSCOST Cost Shares and CER Verification
17.6.4 Specific Transportation Cost
17.6.5 Software Cost
17.6.6 Propulsion Cost
17.7 Reusability Effects on Costs
17.8 The Effects of New Technology on Cost
17.9 Concluding Remarks
References
17.10 Exercises: LV Cost Estimation
Problem 4: LV Cost Estimation
GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS
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B
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R
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Subscripts / Numbers
Greek Symbols
Other Symbols
Index
A
B C
D E
F
G
H
I
J K L
M
N O P
Q R
S
T
U
V W X Y Z
Supporting Materials
ABOUT THE BOOK
ABOUT THE AUTHORS