Design of Coastal Hazard Mitigation Alternatives for Rising Seas

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Author
Supplementary Materials
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 History and Heritage
1.1.1 Time periods
1.1.2 Problem evolution
1.2 The Feasibility Study
1.2.1 Defining the problem
1.2.1.1 What is the problem?
1.2.1.2 What is causing the problem?
1.2.2 Gathering site-specific information
1.2.3 Developing design criteria
1.2.4 Reviewing design constraints
1.2.4.1 Scientific and engineering understanding of nature
1.2.4.2 Economics
1.2.4.3 Environmental
1.2.4.4 Institutional, political, legal
1.2.4.5 Aesthetics
1.2.4.6 The media
1.2.5 Reviewing alternatives for solution
1.2.6 Developing the consequences of failure
1.2.7 Doing a feasibility study
1.2.8 Preparing, presenting, and recommending results
1.2.9 Deciding what comes next?
1.2.10 Archiving the data and results
1.2.11 Other structural design elements beyond the scope of this book
1.3 Design of Coastal Hazard Mitigation Alternatives
1.3.1 The feasibility study and new data
1.3.2 Modeling
1.3.2.1 Physical (scale) models
1.3.2.2 Numerical (computer) models
1.3.3 The final design
1.3.3.1 The permit application
1.3.3.2 Final design report
1.3.4 Plans and specifications
1.3.5 Final permit and funding approval
1.3.6 Monitoring (construction and impacts)
1.3.6.1 Construction monitoring
1.3.6.2 Impact monitoring
1.3.7 Storm performance (the media)
1.3.7.1 No one pays attention when everything works
1.3.7.2 The media pays attention when something appears not to work
1.3.8 Documentation of experience
1.4 Summary of Project Design
References
Chapter 2. Design Criteria
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Description of the site
2.1.2 Design criteria
2.2 Water Levels
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Tides
2.2.2.1 Vertical datum
2.2.2.2 Tidal variations at the project site
2.2.3 Storm-surge hydrographs
2.2.4 Extreme water levels
2.2.5 Climate change and sea-level rise
2.2.6 Water levels for design
2.3 Water Waves
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Regular waves
2.3.2.1 Linear wave theory
2.3.2.2 Nonlinear wave theories
2.3.3 Irregular waves
2.3.3.1 Basic statistics
2.3.3.2 Time domain analysis (the significant wave height)
2.3.3.3 The Rayleigh Distribution
2.3.3.4 Frequency domain analysis (the wave spectrum)
2.3.3.5 Theoretical wave spectra
2.3.3.6 Wave direction
2.3.4 Wave breaking
2.3.4.1 Types of wave breaking
2.3.4.2 The dimensionless surf-similarity parameter, ξ
2.3.4.3 Regular wave breaking
2.3.4.4 Irregular wave breaking
2.3.5 Wave transformations in coastal waters
2.3.5.1 Basic theory for regular waves
2.3.5.2 Basic theory for irregular waves
2.3.5.3 Wave transformations over straight, parallel-depth contours (spreadsheet solution)
2.3.5.4 Wave transformations over complex bathymetry (physical and numerical models)
2.3.6 Wave set-down, set-up, and wave-induced currents
2.3.6.1 Wave-induced radiation stresses
2.3.6.2 Wave setup
2.3.6.3 Wave-induced currents
2.3.7 Wave hindcasts from wind statistics
2.3.7.1 Wave data or wave information
2.3.7.2 Wave hindcasting by simple parameter method
2.3.7.3 Quantification of U, F, t for use in parametric method
2.3.7.4 Two-dimensional hindcasting models
2.3.8 Extreme water waves
2.3.8.1 Peak-over-threshold (POT) method
2.3.8.2 The Weibull extreme value distribution for POT method
2.3.8.3 Wave data or wave information
2.3.9 Climate change and water waves
2.3.10 Design wave conditions
2.4 Geotechnical (Soil) Conditions
2.4.1 Sediment characteristics
2.4.1.1 On the surface
2.4.1.2 Beneath the surface (soil borings)
2.4.2 Foundations
2.4.3 Bulkheads and earth dikes
2.5 Coastal Geomorphology
2.5.1 Littoral drift and sediment transport
2.5.2 Sources and sinks
2.5.3 Shoreline change trends
2.5.4 Sediment budget
2.5.4.1 Near-shore bathymetry
2.6 Other Design Factors/Considerations
2.6.1 Available materials for construction
2.6.2 Construction aspects and accessibility of site
2.6.3 Environmental considerations
2.7 Summary
References
Chapter 3. Alternatives for Hazard Mitigation
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Major concerns for “shore protection”
3.1.2 Alternatives for coastal hazard mitigation
3.1.3 Movable gate structures
3.1.4 The role of the design constraints
3.2 Structural Alternative — Armoring
3.2.1 Seawalls
3.2.2 Bulkheads
3.2.3 Revetments
3.2.4 Dikes and flood walls
3.2.5 Hardening the shoreline
3.3 Structural Alternative — Beach Stabilization
3.3.1 Naturally stable shorelines
3.3.2 Shoreline-stabilization structures
3.3.3 Reefs, sills, and wetlands
3.4 Structural Alternative — Beach Nourishment
3.4.1 History of beach nourishment in the US
3.4.2 Evolution of beach nourishment shoreline protrusion
3.4.2.1 Planform spreading
3.4.2.2 Cross-shore equilibration
3.4.3 Design beach width and volume for variable sediment sizes
3.4.4 Summary — beach nourishment
3.5 Non-Structural Alternatives
3.5.1 Building elevations and insurance
3.5.2 Setback limits
3.5.3 Retreat
3.6 Combinations and New Technologies
3.6.1 Structural combinations
3.6.2 Non-structural and structural combinations
3.6.3 New technologies
3.6.3.1 Precast, concrete units
3.6.3.2 Geotextile containers filled with sand
3.6.3.3 Beach dewatering systems
3.6.3.4 Others
3.6.3.5 Summary — New technologies
3.7 Do-Nothing
3.8 Summary — Alternatives for Coastal Hazard Mitigation
References
Chapter 4. Probabilistic Design
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Deterministic method
4.1.2 Probabilistic method
4.1.3 Probabilistic design practice (Level I design)
4.2 Probability of Failure — Level I Design Practice
4.2.1 The limit state equation
4.2.2 Probability of failure of the design condition, Pf
4.2.2.1 An example of deterministic design (stability formula for plunging waves on rubble-mound structures)
4.2.2.2 Partial safety factors for probabilistic design
4.2.2.3 An example of probabilistic design (stability formula for plunging waves on rubble-mound structures)
4.2.3 Format for partial safety factors
4.3 Statistical Analysis of Extreme Wave Heights
4.3.1 The Weibull extreme-value distribution
4.3.2 Statistical variability of central tendency estimate
4.3.3 Standard deviation estimates — Goda method
4.3.4 Confidence intervals
4.3.5 Design wave heights
4.4 Tables of Partial Safety Factors
4.5 Parameter Uncertainty
4.5.1 Short-term sea-state uncertainty
4.5.2 Long-term sea-state uncertainty
4.6 Probability of Failure — Level II and Level III Theories
4.6.1 Level II theory (linear failure functions of normally distributed random variables)
4.6.1.1 Two, independent, normal probability distributions and
failure probability
4.6.1.2 Single, normal probability distribution and failure probability
4.6.1.3 Example of single distribution method — Rubble mound structure
4.6.1.4 Example deterministic design — probability of failure
4.6.1.5 Example probabilistic design — probability of failure
4.6.2 Other Level II theories
4.6.3 Level III theory
4.7 Probability Analysis of Single and System Modes
of Failure
4.7.1 Single mode of failure
4.7.2 Systems of failure modes
4.7.2.1 Series systems
4.7.2.2 Parallel systems
4.8 N-year Probability and Project Lifetime Failure Probability
4.8.1 N-year probability, PN
4.8.2 Lifetime project probability of failure, PL
4.9 Summary
References
Chapter 5. Functional Design
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Functional design of coastal structures
5.1.2 Harbor breakwaters at Normandy, France (WWII)
5.1.3 Overview of Chapter 5
5.2 Wave Runup
5.2.1 Definition and common formula
5.2.2 Impermeable revetments, dikes, and levees
5.2.2.1 Smooth impermeable slopes
5.2.2.2 Roughened impermeable slopes
5.2.2.3 Other reduction factors on impermeable slopes
5.2.2.4 Other formulations
5.2.3 Permeable, rock-armored structures
5.2.3.1 Surf-similarity parameter, ξom
5.2.3.2 Notational permeability
5.2.3.3 Test results and formulas
5.2.3.4 Partial safety factors for runup on rock-armored slopes
5.2.4 Other research works
5.2.5 Example calculation of wave runup
5.2.5.1 Deterministic design — given data
5.2.5.2 Surf-similarity parameter, ξ
5.2.5.3 Impermeable structures
5.2.5.4 Permeable rock-armored structures
5.2.5.5 Probabilistic design — partial safety factors
5.2.5.6 Spreadsheets for functional design
5.2.6 Summary for wave runup
5.3 Wave Overtopping
5.3.1 Definitions and common formulations
5.3.2 Impermeable revetments and breakwaters
5.3.2.1 Smooth, rough, straight, and berm slopes
5.3.2.2 Armored slopes fronting vertical walls
5.3.3 Vertical walls
5.3.4 The wave EurOtop manual
5.3.4.1 The wave spectral period and surf-similarity parameter
5.3.4.2 Impermeable, sloping revetments, and dikes
5.3.4.3 Permeable armor layers and mounds
5.3.4.4 Vertical and steep seawalls
5.3.5 Probabilistic design
5.3.6 Wave-overtopping volumes
5.3.6.1 Sloping revetments and dikes
5.3.6.2 Plain vertical walls
5.3.7 Guidance on tolerable wave-overtopping limits
5.3.8 Example calculations
5.3.8.1 Deterministic design: Given data
5.3.8.2 Surf-similarity parameters
5.3.8.3 Impermeable, plain slope structure
5.3.8.4 Permeable, rubble-mound structures
5.3.8.5 Plain vertical walls, no berm (dtoe = hs)
5.3.8.6 Probabilistic design — 90%-confidence level
5.3.8.6.1 Impermeable, plain slope structure
5.3.8.6.2 Permeable, rubble-mound structures
5.3.8.6.3 Plain vertical walls, no berm
5.3.8.7 Maximum overtopping volumes
5.3.8.7.1 Impermeable, plain slope, smooth structure
5.3.8.7.2 Impermeable, plain slope, rough structure
5.3.8.7.3 Permeable, rubble-mound structures
5.3.8.7.4 Plain vertical wall, no berm
5.3.9 Spreadsheets and the EurOtop calculation tool
5.3.9.1 Spreadsheets for this book
5.3.9.2 EurOtop calculation tool
5.4 Wave Reflection
5.4.1 Wave reflection coefficient
5.4.2 Wave reflection at sloping structures
5.4.3 Wave reflection — Vertical walls
5.5 Wave Transmission
5.5.1 Wave transmission coefficient
5.5.2 Low-crested structures (LCS)
5.5.2.1 R∗c = Rc/Hsi (d’Angremond et al., 1996)
5.5.2.2 R∗c = Rc/Dn50 (van der Meer and Daemen, 1994)
5.5.2.3 Goda and Ahrens (2008)
5.5.2.4 Other recent efforts
5.5.3 Wave transmission past vertical walls
5.5.4 Wave period changes
5.6 Planform Analysis of Natural Shorelines and Shoreline
Stabilization Structures
5.6.1 Naturally stable shorelines
5.6.2 Shoreline stabilization structures
5.6.2.1 Salients or tombolos
5.6.2.2 Microtidal beaches
5.6.2.3 Meso- and Macrotidal Beaches
5.7 Planform Analysis of Headland Breakwater
5.8 Planform Analysis of Nearshore Breakwaters
5.8.1 Micro-tidal conditions
5.8.2 Macro-tidal conditions
5.9 Planform Analysis of Groin Systems
5.9.1 Negative perceptions of groins
5.9.2 Literature review
5.9.3 Functional design
5.9.3.1 Planform layout
5.9.3.2 Groin profile
5.9.3.3 Groin field transition (taper)
5.9.3.4 Basic rules for the functional design of groins
5.10 The Role of Model Tests in Functional Design
5.10.1 Process-based numerical models
5.10.2 Software development organizations
5.10.2.1 Deltares (The Netherlands)
5.10.2.2 Danish Hydraulic Institute (Denmark)
5.10.2.3 Army Corps of Engineers (US)
5.11 Summary
References
Chapter 6. Structural Design
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Rubble-Mound Structures (Breakwaters, Groins, Jetties, and Revetments)
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Hydraulic stability — Hudson formula
6.2.3 Rock armor layer stability — Modern formulations
6.2.3.1 van der Meer (1987) for non-overtopping waves
6.2.3.2 van der Meer design equations — Deep water (non-overtopping waves)
6.2.3.3 The van der Meer equations in shallow water (non-overtopping waves)
6.2.3.4 The Corps of Engineers
6.2.3.5 Summary of van der Meer equations for design (non-overtopping waves)
6.2.3.6 Spreadsheets for armor layer, probabilistic design applications
6.2.4 Artificial concrete armor units
6.2.5 Overtopped and submerged breakwater stability
6.2.5.1 Moderate wave overtopping — No submergence
6.2.5.2 Low-crested structures (LCS)
6.2.5.3 An example
6.2.5.4 Reef breakwaters
6.2.6 Cross-sectional design of breakwaters
6.2.6.1 Conventional shape — Trunk section
6.2.6.2 Conventional shape — Roundhead ends and leeside armor layer
6.2.6.3 Conventional shape — Concrete caps
6.2.7 Toe protection and scour prevention
6.2.7.1 Toe berms for armor layer stability
6.2.7.2 Scour prevention
6.2.8 Berm breakwaters
6.2.8.1 Berm recession, Rec
6.2.8.2 Additional recommendations for statically stable, reshaping
berm design
6.2.8.3 Formal design methodology for berm breakwaters
6.2.9 Rubble-mound construction details
6.2.9.1 Land-based construction
6.2.9.2 Marine-based construction
6.2.9.3 Concrete armor layer placement
6.2.9.4 Summary — Construction details
6.2.10 Examples
6.2.10.1 Liquid natural gas (LNG) from Algeria — Port of Arzew breakwater
6.2.10.2 Chesapeake Bay bridge tunnel — Storm of the century
6.2.10.3 Azores, Terceira island, Lajes field air base — Gas station
in the Atlantic
6.3 Vertical-Walled Seawalls, Caissons, Bulkheads, and Flood Walls
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Oscillating wave forces on vertical walls
6.3.2.1 Linear wave theory — Progressive, non-breaking waves
6.3.2.2 Linear wave theory — Wave reflection and standing waves
6.3.2.3 Finite-amplitude wave theory
6.3.2.4 Goda formula
6.3.3 Impact wave forces on vertical walls — PROVERBS
6.3.3.1 Twelve steps in recommended procedure for design
6.3.3.2 Simple example
6.3.4 Seawalls
6.3.5 Caisson-type Structures
6.3.5.1 Introduction
6.3.5.2 Complete Goda formulas for caissons of various types
6.3.5.3 Uplift pressures
6.3.5.3.1 Oscillating waves (Goda)
6.3.5.3.2 Impacting waves (PROVERBS)
6.3.5.4 Goda formulas for design
6.3.5.4.1 Forces and moments (bias and uncertainty)
6.3.5.4.2 Partial safety factors
6.3.5.4.3 Bearing capacity of sandy soil foundations
6.3.5.4.4 Spreadsheets for design
6.3.5.4.5 Examples
6.3.5.5 PROVERBS formulas for design
6.3.5.5.1 Effects of caisson length, wave angle and short-crested waves
6.3.5.5.2 Horizontal impact force Fh impact
6.3.5.5.3 Uplift pressures and uplift force
6.3.5.5.4 Caisson sliding, overturning, and bearing pressure
6.3.5.5.5 Partial safety factors — probabilistic design
6.3.5.6 Methods to reduce wave impact forces
6.3.5.7 Summary recommendations for caisson design
6.3.6 Bulkheads
6.3.6.1 Introduction
6.3.6.2 Active and passive soil pressures — Geotechnical
6.3.6.3 Shear and bending moments — Structural design
6.3.6.4 Example calculation
6.3.6.5 Coastal engineering design guidance
6.3.7 Flood walls
6.3.7.1 Introduction
6.3.7.2 Flood wall design
6.3.7.3 Case studies
6.4 Dike (Levee) and Revetments
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Dike design
6.4.2.1 Geotechnical engineering
6.4.2.2 Failure modes of dikes
6.4.2.3 Herbert Hoover dike
6.4.3 Revetment design
6.4.3.1 Materials for a revetment
6.4.3.2 Articulated concrete blocks and mats
6.4.3.3 Geotextile sand containers
6.4.4 Coastal engineering aspects of dike and revetment
design
6.5 Storm Surge Barriers with Movable Tidal Flood Gates
6.5.1 Introduction
6.5.2 Constructed storm-surge barriers
6.5.2.1 Definition of terms
6.5.2.2 Types of movable tidal flood gates
6.5.2.3 Summary of constructed storm-surge barriers (1958–2017)
6.5.3 Engineering design
6.5.3.1 Wind storm surge
6.5.3.2 Atmospheric pressure differential
6.5.3.3 Fundamental oscillation modes (seiche)
6.5.3.4 An example
6.5.3.5 Water level and wave loads on curve walls
6.5.3.6 Costs of constructed projects
6.5.3.7 Ecological and environmental concerns
6.5.3.8 Multi-disciplinary design team
6.5.3.9 Summary
6.5.4 Urban rainfall drain pipe systems
6.6 Special Structures
6.6.1 Floating breakwaters
6.6.2 Artificial reef breakwaters
6.6.3 Breakwaters and wave energy conversion
6.7 The Role of Physical Model Tests in Structural Design
6.7.1 Introduction
6.7.2 Model scales
6.7.3 Froude number similitude — Undistorted scale models
6.7.4 Reynolds number similitude
6.7.5 An example
6.7.6 The new Delta Flume (2015)
6.7.7 Large 2D wave flumes
6.7.8 Summary — Limitations of models
6.8 Summary
References
Chapter 7. Beach Engineering
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 The cultural benefits of beaches
7.1.2 The economic value of beaches
7.1.2.1 Storm damage reduction benefits
7.1.2.2 Travel and tourism benefits
7.1.2.3 Recreation and sport benefits
7.1.2.4 Ecology and environmental benefits
7.1.3 Chapter objectives, topics, and limitations
7.2 Fundamentals of Coastal Hydrodynamics and Sediment Transport
7.2.1 Wave-induced longshore currents and sediment transport
7.2.1.1 Wave-induced radiation stresses
7.2.1.2 Wave-induced longshore current, v
7.2.1.3 Wave-induced sediment transport
7.2.1.4 An example using the CERC formulation
7.2.1.5 Influence of grain size, wave period, and beach profile on LST
7.2.2 Dynamics of beaches
7.2.3 Shoreline change, volume change, and beach erosion
7.2.4 Closure depths and sediment budgets
7.3 Beach Design
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Parameters for design
7.3.2.1 Field work
7.3.2.2 Office work
7.3.2.3 Profile sand volumes of beaches
7.3.2.4 Design volume for beach nourishment
7.3.3 Beach cross-section design
7.3.3.1 Equilibrium beach profiles
7.3.3.2 Beach cross-section design for compatibile materials (DF = DN)
7.3.3.3 Beach cross-section design when coarser sand is obtained from the borrow area (DF > DN)
7.3.3.4 Beach cross-section design when finer sand is obtained from the borrow area (DF < DN)
7.3.3.5 Beach cross-section design with sand volume deficit
7.3.3.6 Beach cross-section design using James curves
7.3.4 Planform evolution
7.3.4.1 The diffusion equation
7.3.4.2 Analytical solution for rectangular nourishment project on infinitely long shoreline
7.3.4.3 Analytical solution for shoreline change updrift of a groin or jetty
7.3.4.4 Limitations of the diffusion equation
7.3.5 Profile equilibration
7.3.5.1 Construction and design width
7.3.5.2 Time for equilibration
7.3.5.3 Background erosion rate combined with planform diffusion rate
7.3.5.4 Bruun rule
7.3.6 Public perceptions
7.3.7 Beach-fx software
7.3.8 Summary
7.4 Dune Design
7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Structural design of dunes
7.4.2.1 Beach-dune erosion models
7.4.2.2 FEMA 540 rule
7.4.2.3 Enhanced dune design
7.4.3 Barrier island breaching
7.4.3.1 A one-dimensional numerical model
7.4.3.2 Delft 3D breaching model
7.5 Beach Construction and Monitoring
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Hydraulic dredging
7.5.2.1 Equipment (plant)
7.5.2.2 Theory of hydraulic dredging
7.5.3 Beach construction
7.5.3.1 Conventional methods
7.5.3.2 Other construction methods
7.5.3.3 Borrow sites
7.5.4 Monitoring of completed projects
7.5.4.1 Survey baseline and profile locations
7.5.4.2 Survey methods for beach profiles
7.6 Beach Management
7.6.1 Technical
7.6.2 Environmental
7.6.3 Social, political, and institutional
7.7 Design and Management Examples
7.7.1 Southeast Virginia Coast (US)
7.7.1.1 City of Virginia Beach
7.7.1.2 Dam Neck beach
7.7.1.3 Sandbridge beach
7.7.2 The “Outer Banks” of North Carolina — Nags Head Beach
7.7.2.1 Design criteria and concerns
7.7.2.2 Annual volume erosion rates
7.7.2.3 Beach nourishment volumes
7.7.2.4 Beach quality sand from borrow site
7.7.2.5 Numerical model studies to refine initial design
7.7.2.6 Final nourishment plan for recommended fill to meet budget
7.7.2.7 Environmental permit and construction
7.7.2.8 Performance over the past six years
7.7.2.9 Future plans for Nags Head Beach
References
Chapter 8. Economics, Risk, and Resilience
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Definition of terms for “Costs”
8.1.2 Definitions of terms for “Benefits”
8.2 Initial Cost Estimates
8.2.1 Rubble-mound structures
8.2.1.1 Dense construction
8.2.1.2 Loose construction
8.2.2 Concrete structures
8.2.3 “Low Cost” solutions for “shore protection”
8.2.4 Hidden costs
8.3 Estimates of Damage Curves
8.3.1 Outline of probabilistic approach
8.3.2 Damage curve definitions
8.3.2.1 Definition of armor layer damage for rock armor
8.3.2.2 Definition of armor layer damage for artificial, concrete units
8.3.2.3 Damage progression of rock armor layers
8.3.3 Damage curves for rubble-mound structures
8.3.3.1 Using van der Meer (1988) equations
8.3.3.2 Damage level, D, and van der Meer level, S
8.3.3.3 Spreadsheets for damage calculations
8.3.4 Damage curves for vertical-wall structures
8.3.5 Damage curves for beaches and dunes
8.4 Maintenance Costs
8.4.1 Introduction
8.4.1.1 Maintenance costs to failure
8.4.1.2 Maintenance costs beyond failure for a destroyed structure
8.4.1.3 Life-cycle maintenance costs
8.4.2 Rubble-mound structure maintenance costs
8.4.3 Dune maintenance costs
8.4.4 Maintenance costs for vertical-walled structures
8.4.5 Influence of partial safety factors on maintenance costs
8.4.6 Lifetime project probability of failure
8.5 Total Life-Cycle Costs
8.6 Risk
8.6.1 Definitions of risk
8.6.1.1 Basic definition
8.6.1.2 The Netherlands definition
8.6.1.3 IPET definition (Hurricane Katrina)
8.6.1.4 Risk index for flood hazard
8.6.1.5 Residual risk
8.6.2 Flood risk and the US government
8.6.2.1 FEMA Maps, Insurance, and Hazards
8.6.2.2 The Corps of Engineers’ NACCS Report
8.6.3 Coastal engineering quantification of risk
8.6.3.1 Coastal engineering definition of risk
8.6.3.2 Damage functions of Corps of Engineers
8.6.4 Norfolk coastal storm risk management feasibility study
8.6.4.1 Analysis of flood damages
8.6.4.2 Cost of alternatives to mitigate damages
8.6.5 Generation II Coastal Risk Model (G2CRM)
8.6.6 The literature surrounding coastal risk hazards
8.6.7 Summary
8.7 Resilience
8.7.1 Introduction
8.7.2 The role of “failure” in coastal engineering design
8.7.3 Metrics to quantify resilience
8.7.3.1 Types of resilience assessment methods
8.7.3.2 Probabilistic, Bayesian network approach
8.8 Summary
8.8.1 Economics
8.8.2 Risk
8.8.3 Resilience
8.8.4 Alternatives for risk reduction and resilience increase
References
Chapter 9. Pile Supported Structures
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fluid Dynamics Forces — Drag and Inertia
9.2.1 Steady flow — Drag force
9.2.2 Unsteady flow — Inertia force
9.2.2.1 Fluid at rest — Cylinder starts to accelerate
9.2.2.2 Cylinder at rest — Water starts to accelerate
9.2.2.3 Inertia coefficient, Cm
9.3 Wave Forces on Slender Cylindrical Piles — Non-breaking Waves
9.3.1 Morison equation
9.3.2 Wave velocities and accelerations
9.3.2.1 Sinusoidal (linear) waves
9.3.2.2 Nonlinear waves
9.3.2.3 Stream function wave theory
9.3.3 Graphical solution for maximum forces and moments
9.3.4 Maximum total force and moments about the mud line
9.3.5 Typical values for CD and Cm coefficients
9.3.6 An example calculation
9.4 Breaking Wave Forces on Slender Piles
9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Large wave flume experiments
9.4.2.1 Relatively deep water breaking — Single focused wave
9.4.2.2 Shallow water breaking — Progressive, regular waves
9.4.3 Theory of wave breaking impact force
9.5 Traverse Forces and Non-vertical Piles
9.6 Safety Factors in Pile Design
9.7 Pier Uplift Wave Forces
References
Chapter 10. Environmental Impacts
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Origins of the environmental constraint
10.1.2 Scope and limitations of this chapter
10.2 Literature Review
10.2.1 Coastal geologists position paper (1982)
10.2.2 Summary of possible seawall effects on beaches (Dean, 1987)
10.2.3 Journal of Coastal Research — Special Issue No. 4 (Autumn 1988)
10.2.4 Thirty years of environmental impacts research (1988–2018)
10.2.4.1 Coastal scour prediction methods at seawalls
10.2.4.2 Additional physical and geological impacts
10.2.4.3 Ecological impacts — Estuarine bay areas
10.2.4.4 Estuarine/marsh loss due to barrier island migration
10.2.4.5 NSF — Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER)
10.2.4.6 Summary — Literature review/environmental impacts
10.3 Sandbridge Beach — Seawalls and Beaches Research
10.3.1 Boundary conditions and long-term shoreline change rates
10.3.2 Seawalls and beaches research at Sandbridge, Virginia
10.3.2.1 Geologic and hydrodynamic setting
10.3.2.2 Seawall construction history
10.3.2.3 Datums, ODU surveys, and datasets
10.3.2.4 Profile definitions and analysis methods
10.3.2.5 Time scales and statistical analysis
10.3.2.6 WAM results
10.3.2.7 WAMSECT results
10.3.2.8 Individual profile method (IPM) results
10.3.2.9 Answers to three key questions
10.3.2.10 Nine full years of ODU research at Sandbridge
10.3.2.11 Dune recession beyond South end seawall (Whitecap Lane)
10.3.2.12 Summary — Sandbridge beach research
10.4 Natural and Nature-based Features (NNBF) — Living Shorelines
10.4.1 NNBF
10.4.2 Living Shorelines
10.5 Downdrift Impacts of Groins
10.6 Summary Chapter 10 — Environmental Impacts
References
Chapter 11. Sea Level Rise
11.1 Background — Climate Change
11.2 Literature Review — Sea Level Rise Predictions
to 2100
11.2.1 US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
11.2.2 US National Ocean and Atmospheric
Administration
11.2.2.1 GMSL rise values
11.2.2.2 GMSL rise probabilities
11.2.2.3 Regional climate-related relative sea-level predictions
11.2.3 US national academies, congress, and executive office
11.2.3.1 National Academies Science Engineering Medicine, National Research Council
11.2.3.2 US Congress and Executive Office
11.2.4 The Netherlands
11.2.5 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
11.2.6 Uncertainty — The Anthropocene Era and the polar regions
11.2.6.1 The Anthropocene Era
11.2.6.2 Ice-sheet volumes and sea level equivalents
11.2.7 Summary
11.3 Sea Level Rise — Impact on this Book
11.3.1 Chapter 1 — Introduction
11.3.2 Chapter 2 — Design criteria
11.3.2.1 Water level — Extremes
11.3.2.2 Water level — Nuisance flooding elevations
11.3.2.3 Water level — Duration of extreme and nuisance flooding
11.3.2.4 Water wave climate — Ocean waves
11.3.2.5 Breaking waves, wave transformations, and time-averaged
waves impacts in coastal waters
11.3.2.6 Sediments and coastal geomorphology
11.3.3 Chapter 3 — Alternatives for hazard mitigation
11.3.4 Chapter 4 — Probabilistic design
11.3.5 Chapter 5 — Functional and planform design
11.3.5.1 Part I — Functional design
11.3.5.2 Part II — Planform design
11.3.6 Chapter 6 — Structural design
11.3.6.1 Rubble-mound structures (breakwaters, groins, jetties, and
revetments)
11.3.6.2 Vertical-walled structures (seawalls, caissons, bulkheads,
and flood walls)
11.3.6.3 Dikes (levee) and revetments
11.3.6.4 Storm surge barriers
11.3.6.5 Special structures
11.3.7 Chapter 7 — Beach engineering
11.3.7.1 Bruun rule
11.3.7.2 Existing beach nourishment projects
11.3.7.3 New beach nourishment projects
11.3.7.4 Dunes
11.3.8 Chapter 8 — Economics, risk, and resilience
11.3.8.1 Risk and resilience metrics
11.3.8.2 Total, life-cycle costs in Anthropocene Era
11.3.8.3 Adaptations to future levels of the oceans
11.3.9 Chapter 9 — Pile supported structures
11.3.10 Chapter 10 — Environmental impacts
11.4 Adaptation of Coastal Hazard Mitigation
Alternatives
11.4.1 Increase crest elevation
11.4.1.1 Rubble-mound structures
11.4.1.2 Impervious, vertical-walled structures
11.4.1.3 Parapet, wave return crests (bullnose)
11.4.2 Decrease frontal wave heights
11.4.3 Other potential adaptation strategies
11.4.4 Mitigation of marine ice shelf instability
11.4.4.1 Blocking warm ocean water
11.4.4.2 Support for ice shelves
11.4.4.3 Reducing the below-ice shelf water flow
11.5 Philosophy for Design
11.5.1 Coastal engineering design to year 2050
11.5.2 Long-term coastal engineering design (2050–2100)
11.6 Summary — Sea Level Rise
11.6.1 Tipping points
11.6.2 Financial plan
11.6.3 Adaptation without mitigation is immoral
References
Index