Descriptive Physical Oceanography, Sixth Edition: An Introduction

Cover......Page 1
Descriptive Physical Oceanography: An Introduction......Page 3
Color Plates......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
S5 Mass, Salt, and Heat Budgets and Wind Forcing: Supplementary Materials......Page 514
1 Introduction to Descriptive Physical Oceanography......Page 10
1.1 Overview......Page 11
1.2 Space and TimeScales of Physical Oceanographic Phenomena......Page 12
2.1 Dimensions......Page 16
2.2 Plate Tectonics and Deep-Sea Topography......Page 18
2.4 Spatial Scales......Page 23
2.5 Shore, Coast, and Beach......Page 24
2.7 Deep Ocean......Page 26
2.9 Methods for Mapping Bottom Topography......Page 28
2.10 Bottom Material......Page 29
2.11 Ocean Basins......Page 30
S9 Atlantic Ocean: Supplementary Materials......Page 74
3.1 Molecular Properties of Water......Page 37
7.2 Momentum Balance......Page 38
7.3 Temperature, Salinity, and Density Evolution......Page 40
3.3.3 Potential Temperature......Page 41
3.4 Salinity and Conductivity......Page 42
3.5 Density of Seawater......Page 45
3.5.2 Effect of Pressure on Density: Potential Density......Page 47
3.5.3 Specific Volume and Specific Volume Anomaly......Page 48
3.5.4 Effect of Temperature and Salinity on Compressibility: Isentropic Surfaces and Neutral Density......Page 49
3.5.5 Linearity and Nonlinearity in the Equation of State......Page 51
3.5.6 Static Stability and Brunt-Väisälä Frequency......Page 52
3.6 Tracers......Page 54
3.7 Sound in the Sea......Page 57
3.8.1 Optical Properties......Page 62
3.8.2 Ocean Color......Page 66
3.9.1 Freezing Process......Page 68
3.9.2 Brine Rejection......Page 69
3.9.4 Mechanical Properties of Sea Ice......Page 70
3.9.5 Types of Sea Ice and its Motion......Page 71
3.9.6 Polynyas and Leads......Page 72
3.9.7 Ice Break-up......Page 73
4.2 Temperature Distribution of the Oceans......Page 76
4.2.1 Surface Temperature......Page 79
8.3.2 Wind-Forced Surface Gravity Waves......Page 81
4.2.3 Thermocline, Halocline, and Pycnocline......Page 83
4.2.4 Temporal Variations of Temperature in the Upper Layer and Thermocline......Page 86
4.2.5 Deep-Water Temperature and Potential Temperature......Page 88
4.3 Salinity Distribution......Page 90
4.3.1 Surface Salinity......Page 94
6.4.1.3 Vertical Sections......Page 95
4.3.3 Intermediate Depth Salinity......Page 96
8.6.2 Dynamic Tides......Page 245
4.3.5 Temporal Variations of Salinity......Page 98
4.4 Density Distribution......Page 99
4.4.1 Density at the Sea Surface and in the Upper Layer......Page 101
4.4.2 Pycnocline......Page 103
4.4.3 Depth Distribution of Potential Density......Page 104
4.5 Dissolved Oxygen......Page 105
12.6 Arctic Ocean Transports and Budgets......Page 106
S16.6 Acoustic Methods for Observing Changes in Temperature or Density......Page 109
10.8 El Niño/ La Niña and The Southern Oscillation (ENSO)......Page 113
S12 The Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas: Supplementary Materials......Page 779
5.1 Conservation of Volume and Mass......Page 118
5.1.2 Open Ocean Continuity......Page 119
5.1.3 Radiation, Flux, and Diffusion......Page 120
5.2 Conservation of Salt......Page 122
5.3.2 The Black Sea: An Example of Positive Water Balance......Page 124
5.3.3 Salt and Freshwater Transports in the Open Ocean......Page 125
S1.4 The Meteor Expedition......Page 563
5.4.1 Heat Budget Terms......Page 128
5.4.2 Shortwave and Longwave Radiation: Elements of Radiation Theory......Page 130
5.4.3 Shortwave Radiation (Qs)......Page 131
5.4.3.1 Factors Affecting Shortwave Radiation Reaching Earth’s Surface......Page 132
5.4.3.2 Absorption of Shortwave Radiation in the Sea......Page 133
5.4.4.1 Factors Affecting Longwave Radiation......Page 134
5.4.5 Effect of Ice and Snow Cover on the Radiation Budget......Page 136
5.4.6 Evaporative or Latent Heat Flux (Qe)......Page 138
5.4.7 Heat Conduction or Sensible Heat Flux (Qh)......Page 139
5.5 Geographic Distribution and Temporal Variation of the Heat-Budget Terms......Page 140
5.5.1 Annual Mean Values of the Components of the Heat Budget......Page 141
5.5.2 Seasonal Variations in the Components of the Heat Budget......Page 144
5.6 Meridional Heat Transport......Page 145
5.7 Buoyancy Fluxes......Page 147
5.8 Wind Forcing......Page 149
7.1 Introduction: Mechanisms......Page 307
6.1 Oceanographic Sampling......Page 155
S8.9 Coral Reefs......Page 157
6.3.1 Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation, and Standard Error......Page 158
6.3.2 Probability Density Function......Page 160
12.2.3 Vertical Convection in the Nordic Seas and Dense Water Formation......Page 161
6.3.4 Least Squares Analysis......Page 164
6.4 Variation in Space: Profiles, Vertical Sections, and Horizontal Maps......Page 166
9.3.5 Subpolar Circulation......Page 167
6.4.2 Variation in the Horizontal Direction......Page 168
7.5.1 Inertial Currents......Page 606
6.5.1 Time Series Data Display......Page 171
6.5.3 Spectral Analysis......Page 173
S16.4.2.2 Mercury Reversing Thermometers......Page 178
6.6 Multidimensional Sampling......Page 179
6.6.1 Multidimensional Time Series Data and Empirical Orthogonal Functions......Page 180
6.6.2 Climatologies and Atlases......Page 183
6.7.1 Analysis Using Two Characteristics......Page 185
6.7.2 Volumetric θ-S Characteristics of Ocean Waters......Page 187
6.7.3 Optimum Multiparameter Analysis......Page 189
13.8 Climate Variability in the Southern Ocean......Page 473
S14 Global Circulation and Water Properties: Supplementary Materials......Page 797
7.1 Introduction: Mechanisms......Page 193
7.2.2 Pressure Gradient Force and Gravitational Force......Page 194
S15.2.1 Tropical Atlantic Variability......Page 195
7.2.4.1 Molecular Viscosity......Page 196
7.2.4.2 Eddy Viscosity......Page 197
7.3.1 Temperature, Salinity, and Density Equations......Page 198
7.3.2 Molecular and Eddy Diffusivity......Page 199
14.5.3 Diapycnal Diffusion and Near-Inertial Motion......Page 200
12.5 Arctic Ocean Water Masses......Page 202
7.5.3 Ekman Layers......Page 203
7.5.5 Observations of Ekman Response and Wind Forcing......Page 205
7.6.1 Pressure Gradient Force and Coriolis Force Balance......Page 206
7.6.2 Geopotential and Dynamic Height Anomalies and Reference Level Velocities......Page 210
9.6.2.3 Recirculations and Time Dependence......Page 284
7.7.1 Vorticity......Page 213
7.7.2 Potential Vorticity......Page 214
7.7.3 Rossby Waves......Page 215
7.7.5 Instability of Geostrophic Ocean Currents......Page 216
7.8 Wind-Driven Circulation: Sverdrup Balance and Western Boundary Currents......Page 217
7.8.1 Sverdrup Balance......Page 218
7.8.2 Stommel’s Solution: Westward Intensification and Western Boundary Currents......Page 219
7.8.5 Wind-Driven Circulation in a Stratified Ocean......Page 220
10.9 Pacific Ocean Water Masses......Page 222
7.9.2 Near-Surface Equatorial Currents and Bjerknes Feedback......Page 223
7.10.1 Buoyancy Loss Processes (Diapycnal Downwelling)......Page 224
7.10.3 Stommel and Arons’ Solution: Abyssal Circulation and Deep Western Boundary Currents......Page 225
7.10.4 Thermohaline Oscillators: Stommel’s Solution......Page 226
9 Atlantic Ocean......Page 228
7.2 Momentum Balance......Page 589
7.2.1 Acceleration and Advection......Page 229
8.3.3 Beaches, Breaking Waves and Associated Set-Up, and Near-Shore Currents......Page 232
8.3.5 Tsunamis......Page 235
8.4.1 Interfacial Internal Gravity Waves......Page 237
8.4.2 Internal Gravity Waves in a Continuously Stratified Ocean......Page 238
8.4.3 Internal Wave Generation and Observations......Page 240
9.5 South Atlantic Circulation......Page 242
8.8 Estuaries......Page 248
11.9 Climate and the Indian Ocean......Page 403
8.10 Adjacent Seas......Page 249
9.1 Introduction and Overview......Page 250
9.2.1 Wind Forcing......Page 254
9.2.2 Buoyancy Forcing......Page 255
7.3 Temperature, Salinity, and Density Evolution......Page 311
13.4.2 Weddell and Ross Sea Gyres......Page 257
12.4.2 Upper Layer Circulation......Page 262
14.2.4 Overturning Circulation Schematics......Page 490
S16.2.6.2 Ships of Opportunity......Page 849
14.4 Global Property Distributions......Page 268
9.5.1 Subtropical Gyre......Page 274
9.5.2 Brazil Current......Page 275
9.5.3 Malvinas Current and Subantarctic Front......Page 276
S8.10.2.3 Properties and Water Masses Within the Mediterranean Sea......Page 673
9.5.5 South Atlantic Eddy Variability and Agulhas Rings......Page 277
9.6.1 Depth Dependence of the Wind-Driven Circulation......Page 278
9.6.1.1 Depth Dependence of the Subtropical Gyre Circulation......Page 279
9.6.2 Deep Circulation and Deep Western Boundary Currents......Page 280
9.6.2.2 Deep Western Boundary Currents......Page 282
9.7 Meridional Overturning Circulation in the Atlantic......Page 285
9.8 Atlantic Ocean Water Masses......Page 286
9.8.1 Potential Temperature vs. Salinity and Oxygen......Page 288
9.8.2.1 Surface Water and Mixed Layer......Page 291
10.7.6 Intraseasonal and Seasonal Variability......Page 347
9.8.2.3 Mode Waters......Page 293
9.8.3 Intermediate Waters......Page 294
9.8.3.1 Labrador Sea Water......Page 295
9.8.3.2 Mediterranean Water......Page 297
9.8.4.1 Nordic Seas Overflow Waters......Page 300
S16.5.5.1 Acoustic Current Measurements......Page 884
9.8.4.2 Antarctic Bottom Water......Page 302
9.8.4.3 North Atlantic Deep Water......Page 303
9.9 Climate and the Atlantic Ocean......Page 306
10.2 Wind and Buoyancy Forcing......Page 310
S16.2.3 Winches, Wires, and Support Systems......Page 846
10.3.1.3 North Pacific Current and Mid-Latitude Fronts......Page 315
S8.9.2 Water Properties in Coral Reefs......Page 317
10.3.1.6 Depth Dependence of the Subtropical Circulation......Page 322
10.3.2.1 General Description......Page 323
14.5.2 Observed Scales, Speeds, and Coherence of Eddy Variability......Page 324
10.4.1 Subtropical Circulation......Page 326
10.4.1.1 East Australian Current......Page 327
7.7 Vorticity, Potential Vorticity, Rossby and Kelvin Waves, and Instabilities......Page 471
10.4.1.3 Northward Flow of the Subtropical Gyre and the Peru-Chile Current System......Page 329
11.5 Indonesian Throughflow......Page 331
10.6 Depth Dependence of the Pacific Ocean Circulation and Meridional Overturn......Page 332
10.7.1 Introduction......Page 336
10.7.3.1 Zonal Currents and Associated Mid-Ocean Meridional Flows......Page 339
10.7.3.2 Zonal Structure of the Equatorial Currents......Page 343
S16.4.3.4 Standard Seawater......Page 346
10.8.1 ENSO Description......Page 351
S16.5.3 Lagrangian Methods Employing Tracers......Page 881
10.9.1 Pacific Ocean Upper Waters......Page 354
10.9.2.1 North Pacific Intermediate Water......Page 359
10.9.2.2 Antarctic Intermediate Water......Page 362
10.9.3 Deep Waters......Page 363
10.9.4 Bottom Water (LCDW)......Page 365
10.10 Decadal Climate Variability and Climate Change......Page 366
S1.1 scientists on Ships......Page 557
S15.1 Introduction......Page 367
11.2 Wind and Buoyancy Forcing......Page 369
11.2.2 Monsoonal Wind Forcing......Page 370
11.3 Monsoonal and Tropical Ocean Circulation......Page 371
11.4.1 Subtropical Gyre......Page 374
11.4.2 Agulhas Current and Retroflection......Page 377
11.4.3 Leeuwin Current......Page 381
S1.6 A Brief History of Numerical Modeling in Physical Oceanography......Page 568
11.7 Intermediate and Deep Circulation......Page 388
11.8.1 Upper Ocean......Page 391
7.2.4.2 Eddy Viscosity......Page 425
11.8.3 Deep and Bottom Waters......Page 400
12.1 Introduction......Page 404
12.2 The Nordic Seas......Page 405
12.2.2 Nordic Seas Water Masses......Page 408
S1.3 scandinavian Contributions and the Dynamic Method......Page 561
12.4.1 Ice Drift and Wind Forcing......Page 415
12.4.3 Intermediate and Deep Circulation......Page 420
13.5.1.1 Subantarctic Surface Water and Subantarctic Mode Water......Page 459
12.7.1 Distribution of Arctic Sea Ice......Page 433
S8.10.2.2 Circulation of the Mediterranean Sea......Page 672
12.8 Climate Variations and the Arctic......Page 438
S16.2.1 Ocean Research Vessels......Page 844
S16.3 Depth and Pressure Measurements......Page 851
13.3.1 Fronts......Page 444
13.3.2 Zones......Page 451
13.4 Southern Ocean Circulation and Transports......Page 452
13.4.1 Antarctic Circumpolar Current......Page 453
13.4.3 Mid-Depth to Bottom Circulation......Page 457
13.5 Southern Ocean Water Masses......Page 458
S15.5.2 Variations in Arctic Sea Ice......Page 460
13.5.2 Antarctic Intermediate Water......Page 461
13.5.3 Circumpolar Deep Water......Page 463
13.5.4 Antarctic Bottom Water......Page 464
13.5.5 Overturning Budgets......Page 468
13.6 Eddies in the Southern Ocean......Page 469
13.7.2 Sea Ice Motion......Page 472
S11 Indian Ocean: Supplementary Materials......Page 475
S8.8.1 Types of Estuaries......Page 476
14.1.2 Intermediate and Deep Circulation......Page 480
S8.8 Estuaries......Page 482
S8.9.1 Topography of Coral Reefs......Page 485
14.2.3 Meridional Overturning Streamfunction......Page 487
14.3 Heat and Freshwater Transports and Ocean Circulation......Page 493
S16.2.6.1 Aircraft......Page 847
14.4.2 Water Mass Distributions......Page 497
14.5 Eddy Variability and Diffusivity......Page 503
14.5.1 Eddy Energy and Lateral Eddy Diffusivity Distributions......Page 504
S15.6 Climate and the Southern Ocean......Page 512
Index......Page 545
S1.2 organized Expeditions Prior to the Twentieth Century......Page 558
S1.5 world War II and Mid-Twentieth Century Physical Oceanography......Page 566
References......Page 570
References......Page 574
References......Page 585
S6 Data Analysis Concepts and Observational Methods: Supplementary Materials......Page 586
References......Page 587
S16.1 The Impact of Space and Timescales on Sampling and Instrumentation......Page 842
7.2.3 Rotation: Centrifugal and Coriolis Forces......Page 591
7.2.3.1 Centrifugal and Centripetal Force......Page 592
7.2.3.2 Coriolis Force......Page 593
7.2.4.1 Molecular Viscosity......Page 594
7.2.5 Mathematical Expression of Momentum Balance......Page 597
S16.4.2.1 Sea-Surface Temperature......Page 856
7.3.2 Molecular and Eddy Diffusivity......Page 599
7.4 Mixing Layers......Page 600
S16.4.2.3 Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth Profiler......Page 601
S8.10.5 Subtropical North Pacific Marginal Seas......Page 683
7.4.3.1 Turbulent Mixing......Page 602
7.4.3.2 Double Diffusion......Page 605
7.5.2 Langmuir Circulation......Page 607
7.5.3 Ekman Layers......Page 609
7.5.4 Ekman Transport Convergence and Wind Stress Curl......Page 611
7.5.5 Observations of Ekman Response and Wind Forcing......Page 614
7.6.1 Pressure Gradient Force and Coriolis Force Balance......Page 617
7.6.2 Geopotential and Dynamic Height Anomalies and Reference Level Velocities......Page 621
7.6.4 A Two-Layer Ocean......Page 626
7.7.1 Vorticity......Page 630
7.7.2 Potential Vorticity......Page 631
7.7.3 Rossby Waves......Page 633
7.7.4 Rossby Deformation Radius and Rossby Wave Dispersion Relation......Page 635
7.7.5 Instability of Geostrophic Ocean Currents......Page 637
7.8 Wind-Driven Circulation: Sverdrup Balance and Western Boundary Currents......Page 639
7.8.1 Sverdrup Balance......Page 640
7.8.2 Stommel's Solution: Westward Intensification and Western Boundary Currents......Page 642
7.8.3 Munk's Solution: Western Boundary Currents......Page 643
7.8.4 Fofonoff's Solution: Large-Scale Inertial Currents......Page 645
7.8.5 Wind-Driven Circulation in a Stratified Ocean......Page 646
7.9.1 Coastal Upwelling and Eastern Boundary Currents......Page 648
7.9.2 Near-Surface Equatorial Currents and Bjerknes Feedback......Page 649
7.10 Buoyancy (Thermohaline) Forcing and Abyssal Circulation......Page 650
7.10.1 Buoyancy Loss Processes (Diapycnal Downwelling)......Page 652
7.10.3 Stommel and Arons' Solution: Abyssal Circulation and Deep Western Boundary Currents......Page 653
7.10.4 Thermohaline Oscillators: Stommel's solution......Page 655
References......Page 657
S8.7 Water Properties in Coastal Regions: River Runoff......Page 660
S8.8.2 Estuarine Circulation......Page 664
S8.8.3 Flushing Time of Estuaries......Page 666
S8.9.3 Currents in Coral Reefs......Page 667
S8.9.4 Circulation in Lagoons......Page 668
S8.10.1 General Inflow and Outflow Characteristics......Page 669
S8.10.2 Mediterranean Sea......Page 671
S8.10.3 Black Sea......Page 676
S8.10.4 Baltic and North Seas......Page 680
S8.10.6 Bering and Okhotsk Seas......Page 684
S8.10.7 Red Sea and Persian Gulf......Page 685
References......Page 688
References......Page 763
S10 Pacific Ocean: Supplementary Materials......Page 734
Reference......Page 778
References......Page 792
S13 Southern Ocean: Supplementary Materials......Page 793
References......Page 796
References......Page 805
S15.1.1 Definitions......Page 806
S16.2.2 Propulsion and Maneuverability......Page 807
S15.2 Climate and the Atlantic Ocean......Page 809
S15.2.2 Decadal and Multidecadal Variability......Page 811
S15.2.3 Atlantic Ocean Property Variability......Page 813
S15.2.4 Climate Change and the Atlantic Ocean......Page 816
S15.3 Climate and the Pacific Ocean......Page 817
S15.4 Climate and the Indian Ocean......Page 819
S15.5.1 Arctic Oscillation, Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, and Global Change......Page 822
S15.5.3 Variations in Nordic Seas and Arctic Water Properties......Page 827
S15.7 Global Ocean Climate Change......Page 832
References......Page 837
S16.4.1 Water-Sampling Bottles......Page 853
S16.4.2.4 Mechanical Bathythermograph......Page 863
S16.4.2.5 Expendable Bathythermograph and Expendable CTD......Page 864
S16.4.2.6 Subsurface Temperature Measurements from Floating and Moored Instruments......Page 867
S16.4.3.1 Salinity Measurements Using Titration......Page 868
S16.4.3.2 Salinity Measurements Using Conductivity......Page 869
S16.4.5 Other Water Properties......Page 871
S16.5.1 Lagrangian Methods for Surface Currents......Page 873
S16.5.2 Lagrangian Methods for Subsurface Currents......Page 875
S16.5.4 Eulerian Current Measurement: Mechanical Sensors......Page 882
ADCP accuracy is limited by......Page 887
S16.5.5.2 Electrical and Magnetic Field Current Measurements......Page 888
S16.5.6.1 Subsurface Current Meter Moorings......Page 889
S16.5.6.2 Deep-Sea Surface Moorings......Page 892
S16.5.6.3 Large Moored Buoy Programs......Page 893
S16.6.1 Acoustic Tomography......Page 894
S16.6.2 Inverted Echo Sounder......Page 896
S16.7 Sea-Level Measurement......Page 898
S16.8 Radiation and Optical Measurements......Page 899
S16.9.2 Satellite Orbits......Page 902
S16.9.3 Sensor Types......Page 904
S16.9.4 SEASAT......Page 906
S16.9.5 Sea-Surface Temperature from Satellite Remote Sensing......Page 908
S16.9.6 Sea Surface Salinity......Page 910
S16.9.7 Sea Ice......Page 911
S16.9.8 The Coastal Zone Color Scanner and SeaWiFS......Page 912
S16.9.9 Sea Surface Height: Satellite Altimetry......Page 913
S16.9.11 Wind Speed and Direction: Scatterometry......Page 916
S16.9.12 Other Satellite Sensors and Derived Products......Page 917
S16.9.13.1 Satellite Communication......Page 918
S16.9.13.2 Satellite Navigation......Page 919
S16.10 Data Archives and Data Centers......Page 920
References......Page 921