Cybercrime in Context: The human factor in victimization, offending, and policing

Contents
Introduction
The Annual Conference on the Human Factor in Cybercrime: An Analysis of Participation in the 2018 and 2019 Meetings
Introduction
The Annual Conference on the Human Factor in Cybercrime
The Present Study
Data
Analytic Strategy
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Part II: Victims
The Online Behaviour and Victimization Study: The Development of an Experimental Research Instrument for Measuring and Explaining Online Behaviour and Cybercrime Victimization
Introduction
Online Behaviour and Cybercrime Victimization
Unsafe Online Behaviour as a Predictor of Online Victimization
Explaining Online Behaviour
Motivation
Knowledge/Awareness
Opportunity
Other Factors
Measuring Online Behaviour
Research into Self-Reported Behaviour
Research into Actual Online Behaviour
Self-Reported Behaviour Versus Actual Behaviour
Online Behaviour and Victimization Study
Outline of the Research Instrument
Measuring Seven Clusters of Online Behaviour
Detailed Description of the Measurements of Actual Online Behaviour
Experiments
Discussion
Appendix: Survey Items Self-Reported Online Behaviour
References
No Gambles with Information Security: The Victim Psychology of a Ransomware Attack
Ransomware as Data Loss
Neural and Behavioural Responses to Loss Feedback
Individual Differences in Loss Response
Personality Risk Factors and Ransomware
Response Strategies for Groups
Loss-Threatening Incentives and Minimal Loss
The Generalizability of Gambling-Task Experiments to Ransomware
Future Directions and Conclusion
References
Shifting the Blame? Investigation of User Compliance with Digital Payment Regulations
Current Study
Methods
Participant Recruitment
Participants
Materials
Results
Experience with Online Banking
Awareness of Security Guidelines (RQ1)
Compliance with Security Guidelines (RQ2)
The Effect of Awareness on Compliance with Security Guidelines (RQ3)
Discussion
Limitations and Future Research
Conclusion
References
Protect Against Unintentional Insider Threats: The Risk of an Employee’s Cyber Misconduct on a Social Media Site
Introduction
Insider Threat: A Background
Research Problem and Current Investigative Approach
Method and Data
Phase 1: Threat Vector
Phase 2: Human Factor
Phase 3: Insider Threat Prevention
Discussion
Conclusion and Further Work
References
Assessing the Detrimental Impact of Cyber-Victimization on Self-Perceived Community Safety
Introduction
Background
Defining End-User Cyber-Victimization
Digital Victimization, Localized Victimization, and Self-Perceived Community Safety
Systemic Desensitization
Method
Data
Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Hypotheses
Results
Descriptives
Independent Samples T-Test
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) Results
Discussion
Interpretation
Limitations
Conclusion and Implications
References
Show Me the Money! Identity Fraud Losses, Capacity to Act, and Victims’ Efforts for Reimbursement
Contacting Agencies and Reimbursement
Data
Incident Characteristics
Victim Characteristics
Analysis
Results
Conclusion
References
Victims of Cybercrime: Understanding the Impact Through Accounts
Introduction
Hacking Offences
Computer Virus Offences
Methods
The Impact of Computer Misuse Crime in Context
A Continuum of Impact
Incident of Minor Inconvenience
Gweneth [Individual, Computer Virus]
Jackie [Individual, Hacking]
Vanessa [Individual, Computer Virus]
Crime of Inconvenience
Joanna [Individual, Hacking]
Rachael [Individual, DDoS]
Lily [Individual, Computer Virus, Sextortion]
Angeline [Individual, Hacking]
Justin [SMO, Hacking]
Serious Crime of Personal Violation or Significant Financial Loss or Fear of Loss
Catherine [Individual, Hacking]
Claire [Individual, Hacking]
Leo [Individual, Hacking]
Sam [Individual, Hacking, Sexploitation]
Wayne [Individual, Online Harassment]
Patricia [Individual, Multiple]
Sophie [Individual, Hacking]
Conclusion
References
The Impact of a Canadian Financial Cybercrime Prevention Campaign on Clients’ Sense of Security
Introduction
Cybercrime Prevalence
Impact of Cybercrime
Prevention Campaigns
Sense of Security
Methods
Results
Descriptive Analyses
Discussion
Strengths
Limitations and Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Part III: Offenders
Saint or Satan? Moral Development and Dark Triad Influences on Cybercriminal Intent
Introduction
Personality and Cybercriminal Intent
Cybercrime
Dark Triad Traits
Machiavellianism
Narcissism
Psychopathy
Moral Reasoning
Data, Instruments, and Methodology
Sample
Instruments
Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior to Cybercrime
Measuring the Dark Triad
Measuring Moral Development
Methods and Analytical Strategy
Results
Discussion
Discussion of Findings and Implications
Limitations
Practical Implications and Future Research Directions
Conclusion
References
Cyber-Dependent Crime Versus Traditional Crime: Empirical Evidence for Clusters of Offenses and Related Motives
Introduction
Cyber-Dependent Crime
Motives and Typologies of Cyber-Dependent Offenders
Justifications or Neutralizations
The Current Study
Data and Methods
Sample and Procedure
Measures
Self-Reported Offending
Motive
Analytical Strategy
Results
Offending Clusters
Motives
Intrinsic Motives of Cyber-Dependent Crime
Financial Motives of Cyber-Dependent Crime
Extrinsic Motives of Cyber-Dependent Crime
Comparison of Motives Between Traditional Crimes
Comparison of Cyber-Dependent and Traditional Crime
Conclusion and Discussion
Appendix 1: Pattern Matrix Principal Component Analysis
Appendix 2: Evidence for Significant Differences in Motives Between Clusters
References
Examining Gender-Responsive Risk Factors That Predict Recidivism for People Convicted of Cybercrimes
Introduction
Prior Research on Women’s Involvement and Risk to Reoffend
Women’s Pathways into “Street” Crime
Gender-Responsive Risk Factors and Assessment in Corrections
The Current Study
Methods
Data
Measures
Cybercrime
Outcome Variable
Independent Variables
Control Variables
Analysis Plan
Findings
Describing Women and Men Convicted of Cybercrime
Identifying Gender-Responsive Risk Factors for Cybercrime
Overall Risk to Reoffend
Criminogenic Needs Areas
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Exploring Masculinities and Perceptions of Gender in Online Cybercrime Subcultures
Introduction
Literature Review
Hacking
Gendering Cybercrime
Data and Methods
The CrimeBB Dataset
Preprocessing
Quantitative Methods
Data Cleaning
NLP Text Pre-processing
Frequency Distribution
Bigrams and Collocations
Topic Modelling
Qualitative Methods
Results and Findings
Data Science Findings
Bigrams and Collocations
Topic Modelling
Qualitative Results
Stalking and Gendered Victimisation as a Point of Initiation
Gender as a Resource and a Risk in Cybercriminal Practices
Gender Norms and Access to ‘Hacker’ Identity
Discussion and Concluding Thoughts
References
Child Sexual Exploitation Communities on the Darkweb: How Organized Are They?
Cyber-Facilitated CSE
Entrepreneurial and Illegal Governance Structures
Associational Structures
Methods
Sample
Case File Analysis
Complementary Interviews
Results
Case File Descriptions
Darkweb CSE Fora as Criminal Marketplaces: Organization and Role Differentiation
Entrepreneurial Structures
Illegal Governance
Associational Structures
Discussion
References
Part IV: Policing
Infrastructural Power: Dealing with Abuse, Crime, and Control in the Tor Anonymity Network
Introduction: Power, Crime, and Control Online
Context and Review of the Literature
Platforms, Privacy, and Abuse
Tor: The Dark Web as a Privacy Infrastructure
Internet Infrastructures and Strategies of Control
Navigating Crime and Power as a Rebel Infrastructure
Theory and Methodology: A Social Worlds Approach to Studying Internet Infrastructure
Research Methods
Findings
Privacy as a Structure: The Engineer World and Standardisation
Privacy as a Service: The Infrastructuralist World and Neutralisation
Privacy as a Struggle: The Activist World and Reclamation
Democratisation: From Disruption to Governmentality
Discussion and Concluding Thoughts: Infrastructural Power and its Limits
References
Cybercrime Reporting Behaviors Among Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises in the Netherlands
Introduction
Literature Review
The Current Study
Methods
Sample
Vignettes
Dependent Variables
Independent Variables
Self-Reported Victimization
Results
Vignette Study
Self-Reported Victimization
Discussion
Limitations
Appendix
References
Text Mining for Cybercrime in Registrations of the Dutch Police
Introduction
Previous Research
Method
Data Selection
Data Preparation
Classifier Selection
Classifier Evaluation
Estimating the Number of Police Registrations of Cybercrime
Validation
Results
Classifier Selection
Classifier Evaluation
Estimation of Number of Registrations of Cybercrime
Validation
Discussion
Conclusion
Notes
References
Law Enforcement and Disruption of Offline and Online Activities: A Review of Contemporary Challenges
Introduction
Law Enforcement and Cybercrime Policies
The Budapest Cybercrime Convention (BCC)
Challenges in Policing Cybercrimes
Legal Framework(s), Countries’ Sovereignty, and Jurisdictions
Context of the Digital World
Current State of Policing Expertise and Resources
Detection and Reporting Rates
Policing Offline and Online: On the Effectiveness of Various Approaches
Police Offline Interventions: Current State of Knowledge
Hot Spots Policing and Crackdowns
Community-Oriented Policing
Problem-Oriented Policing
What Works in Policing Online Crime?
Thoughts on Online Unfocused Policing
Online Focused Policing: Previous Attempts and Suggestions for the Future
Partnerships Beyond Community Policing
Conclusion
References
Unique Offender, Unique Response? Assessing the Suitability and Effectiveness of Interventions for Cyber Offenders
Introduction
Research Method
Are Cyber Offenders Unique? A Brief Overview
Motivational Factors
Personal and Contextual Factors
Personality and Psychological Factors
Online Peer Influence
Limited Parental Control
Low Risk (Perceptions) of Getting Punished and Limited Awareness of Illegality
Limited Awareness of Inflicted Harm
What Makes Interventions (Not) Work? Three Perspectives on the Effectiveness of Interventions
Deterrence Approach
What Works Approach
Desistance Approach
Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions
Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions Directed at Deterrence
Assessing the Effectiveness of Risk-Based and Strength-Based Interventions
Diagnoses of Needs, Strengths and Responsivity
Applying Traditional Interventions on Cyber Offenders
Risk-Based Interventions for Cyber Offenders
Strength-Based Interventions for Cyber Offenders
Combinations of Risk-Based and Strength-Based Interventions
Conclusion
References
Index