Corpus linguistics. A guide to the methodology

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 The need for corpus data
1.1 Arguments against corpus data
1.1.1 Corpus data as usage data
1.1.2 The incompleteness of corpora
1.1.3 The absence of meaning in corpora
1.2 Intuition
1.2.1 Intuition as performance
1.2.2 The incompleteness of intuition
1.2.3 Intuitions about form and meaning
1.3 Intuition data vs. corpus data
1.4 Corpus data in other sub-disciplines of linguistics
2 What is corpus linguistics?
2.1 The linguistic corpus
2.1.1 Authenticity
2.1.2 Representativeness
2.1.3 Size
2.1.4 Annotations
2.2 Towards a definition of corpus linguistics
2.3 Corpus linguistics as a scientific method
3 Corpus linguistics as a scientific method
3.1 The scientific hypothesis
3.1.1 Stating hypotheses
3.1.2 Testing hypotheses: From counterexamples to probabilities
3.2 Operationalization
3.2.1 Operational definitions
3.2.2 Examples of operationalization in corpus linguistics
3.2.2.1 Parts of speech
3.2.2.2 Length
3.2.2.3 Discourse status
3.2.2.4 Word senses
3.2.2.5 Animacy
3.2.2.6 Interim summary
3.3 Hypotheses in context: The research cycle
4 Data retrieval and annotation
4.1 Retrieval
4.1.1 Corpus queries
4.1.2 Precision and recall
4.1.3 Manual, semi-manual and automatic searches
4.2 Annotating
4.2.1 Annotating as interpretation
4.2.2 Annotation schemes
4.2.3 The reliability of annotation schemes
4.2.4 Reproducibility
4.2.5 Data storage
5 Quantifying research questions
5.1 Types of data
5.1.1 Nominal data
5.1.2 Ordinal data
5.1.3 Cardinal data
5.1.4 Interim summary
5.2 Descriptive statistics for nominal data
5.2.1 Percentages
5.2.2 Observed and expected frequencies
5.3 Descriptive statistics for ordinal data
5.3.1 Medians
5.3.2 Frequency lists and mode
5.4 Descriptive statistics for cardinal data
5.4.1 Means
5.5 Summary
6 Significance testing
6.1 Statistical hypothesis testing
6.2 Probabilities and significance testing
6.3 Nominal data: The chi-square test
6.3.1 Two-by-two designs
6.3.2 One-by-n designs
6.4 Ordinal data: The Mann-Whitney U-test
6.5 Inferential statistics for cardinal data
6.5.1 Welch's t-test
6.5.2 Normal distribution requirement
6.6 Complex research designs
6.6.1 Variables with more than two values
6.6.2 Designs with more than two variables
6.6.2.1 A danger of bivariate designs
6.6.2.2 Configural frequency analysis
7 Collocation
7.1 Collocates
7.1.1 Collocation as a quantitative phenomenon
7.1.2 Methodological issues in collocation research
7.1.3 Effect sizes for collocations
7.1.3.1 Chi-square
7.1.3.2 Mutual Information
7.1.3.3 The log-likelihood ratio test
7.1.3.4 Minimum Sensitivity
7.1.3.5 Fisher's exact test
7.1.3.6 A comparison of association measures
7.2 Case studies
7.2.1 Collocation for its own sake
7.2.1.1 Case study: Degree adverbs
7.2.2 Lexical relations
7.2.2.1 Case study: Near synonyms
7.2.2.2 Case study: Antonymy
7.2.3 Semantic prosody
7.2.3.1 Case study: True feelings
7.2.3.2 Case study: The verb cause
7.2.4 Cultural analysis
7.2.4.1 Case study: Small boys, little girls
8 Grammar
8.1 Grammar in corpora
8.2 Case studies
8.2.1 Collocational frameworks and grammar patterns
8.2.1.1 Case study: [a __ of]
8.2.1.2 Case study: [there Vlink something ADJ about NP]
8.2.2 Collostructional analysis
8.2.2.1 Case study: The ditransitive
8.2.2.2 Case study: Ditransitive and prepositional dative
8.2.2.3 Case study: Negative evidence
8.2.3 Words and their grammatical properties
8.2.3.1 Case study: Complementation of begin and start
8.2.4 Grammar and context
8.2.4.1 Case study: Adjective order and frequency
8.2.4.2 Case study: Binomials and sonority
8.2.4.3 Case study: Horror aequi
8.2.4.4 Case study: Synthetic and analytic comparatives and persistence
8.2.5 Variation and change
8.2.5.1 Case study: Sex differences in the use of tag questions
8.2.5.2 Case study: Language change
8.2.5.3 Case study: Grammaticalization
8.2.6 Grammar and cultural analysis
8.2.6.1 Case study: He said, she said
8.2.7 Grammar and counterexamples
8.2.7.1 Case study: To- vs. that-complements
9 Morphology
9.1 Quantifying morphological phenomena
9.1.1 Counting morphemes: Types, tokens and hapax legomena
9.1.1.1 Token frequency
9.1.1.2 Type frequency
9.1.1.3 Hapax legomena
9.1.2 Statistical evaluation
9.2 Case studies
9.2.1 Morphemes and stems
9.2.1.1 Case study: Phonological constraints on -ify
9.2.1.2 Case study: Semantic differences between -ic and -ical
9.2.1.3 Case study: Phonological differences between -ic and -ical
9.2.1.4 Case study: Affix combinations
9.2.2 Morphemes and demographic variables
9.2.2.1 Case study: Productivity and genre
9.2.2.2 Case study: Productivity and speaker sex
10 Text
10.1 Keyword analysis
10.2 Case studies
10.2.1 Language variety
10.2.1.1 Case study: Keywords in scientific writing
10.2.1.2 Case study: [a + __ + of] in Scientific English
10.2.2 Comparing speech communities
10.2.2.1 Case study: British vs. American culture
10.2.2.2 Case study: ``African'' keywords
10.2.3 Co-occurrence of lexical items and demographic categories
10.2.3.1 Case study: A deductive approach to sex differences
10.2.3.2 Case study: An inductive approach to sex differences
10.2.4 Ideology
10.2.4.1 Case study: Political ideologies
10.2.4.2 Case study: The importance of men and women
10.2.5 Time periods
10.2.5.1 Case study: Verbs in the going-to future
10.2.5.2 Case study: Culture across time
11 Metaphor
11.1 Studying metaphor in corpora
11.2 Case studies
11.2.1 Source domains
11.2.1.1 Case study: Lexical relations and metaphorical mapping
11.2.1.2 Case study: Word forms in metaphorical mappings
11.2.1.3 Case study: The impact of metaphorical expressions
11.2.2 Target domains
11.2.2.1 Case study: Happiness across cultures
11.2.2.2 Case study: Intensity of emotions
11.2.3 Metaphor and text
11.2.3.1 Case study: Identifying potential source domains
11.2.3.2 Case study: Metaphoricity signals
11.2.3.3 Case study: Metaphor and ideology
11.2.4 Metonymy
11.2.4.1 Case study: Subjects of the verb bomb
12 Epilogue
13 Study notes
14 Statistical tables
14.1 Critical values for the chi-square test
14.2 Chi-square table for multiple tests with one degree of freedom
14.3 Critical values for the Mann-Whitney-Text
14.4 Critical values for Welch's t-Test
References
Index
Name index
Subject index