Continuous Emission Monitoring

COVER
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT PAGE
CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CEM SYSTEMS
A BRIEF HISTORY
TYPES OF MONITORING SYSTEMS
Extractive Systems
In-Situ Systems
Remote Sensors
Parameter Monitoring Systems
Analytical Techniques Used in CEM System Instrumentation
Data Acquisition and Handling Systems
THE ROLE OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
APPLICATION
SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 2 CEM REGULATIONS
IMPLEMENTING RULES IN THE UNITED STATES
U.S. Federal Implementing Rules
State Programs and Federal Programs Administered by the States
40 CFR Part 62 – Federal Requirements for Existing Units Not Covered by a State Plan
40 CFR Part 70 – Title V Operating Permits
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS
Part 60 Quality Assurance Procedures
Other U.S. QA Procedures
The Role of Calibration Gases
INTERNATIONAL RULES
Canada
Europe
Asia
Latin America*
Developing a National Continuous Emission Monitoring Program
ENFORCEMENT POLICIES AND CEM SYSTEMS
Compliance Indicating Systems – Using CEM Systems for Reporting Excess Emissions
Enforcement Levels
Level 2
Compliance Monitoring Systems – Using CEM Systems for Direct Compliance
Compliance Assurance Monitoring and the Credible Evidence Rule
Periodic Monitoring
Epilogue
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 3 EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM DESIGN
SOURCE-LEVEL EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS
Hot/Wet Systems
Cool/Dry Systems with Conditioning
Sample Probes
Umbilical Line
Calibration Gas System and Cylinder Gas Pressure Regulators
Moisture Removal Methods
Sample Pumps
Fine Filters
Assembling a Cool/Dry Extractive System
CLOSE-COUPLED SYSTEMS
DILUTION EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS
Dilution Probes
Dilution Air Cleanup Systems
External Dilution Systems (Probes)
Enhancing the Operation of Dilution Systems
Dilution Extractive Systems: Wet or Dry Measurement?
SAMPLING INTERFACE/MONITOR CALIBRATION
EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND ACCESSORIES
MINI-SYSTEMS
MODULAR SAMPLING SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO THE ANALYTICAL METHODS
THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
The Wave Nature of Light
Absorption of Light by Molecules
The Beer–Lambert Law
LIGHT SCATTERING BY PARTICLES
Rayleigh Scattering: r/λ ≤ 1
Mie Scattering: r/λ = 1
Geometric Optics: r/λ ≥ 1
Opacity and Transmittance
Bouguer’s Law
COMPONENTS OF A SPECTROMETER: BUILDING AN INSTRUMENT
Radiation Sources
Wavelength Selection
Detectors
Multipath Gas Cells
Optical Components
Constructing a Spectrophotometer
CHAPTER 5 EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM ANALYZERS
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – INFRARED MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Nondispersive Infrared Analyzers
Laser-Based Analyzers
Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – ULTRAVIOLET MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Nondispersive Ultraviolet Photometers
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – LUMINESCENCE
Fluorescence Analyzers for SO2 Measurement
Chemiluminescence Analyzers for NO and NOx Measurement
Low NOx Measurements.
ELECTROANALYTICAL METHODS
Polarographic Analyzers
Potentiometric Analyzers Using Ion-Selective Electrodes
Electrocatalytic Analyzers for Measuring Oxygen
Paramagnetic Techniques for Measuring Oxygen
Magnetopneumatic Instruments
Thermal Conductivity Analyzers
DEVELOPMENTS IN EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM GAS ANALYZERS
Traditional Approaches
Developing Approaches
CHAPTER 6 IN-SITU GAS MONITORING SYSTEMS
POINT (SHORT-PATH) IN-SITU MONITORS
Probe Designs
Point Monitor Analytical Methods
Electrocatalytic In-situ Method
Advantages and Limitations of Point In-situ Systems
INTEGRATED-PATH MONITORING SYSTEMS
Single-Pass Systems
Double-Pass Systems
Optical Depth
Stratification Issues
Integrated-Path Analyzer Calibration Issues
Integrated-Path Analyzer Analytical Methods
Advantages and Limitations of Integrated-Path CEM Systems
Certification Test Criteria for Integrated-Path Monitors
Quality Assurance for In-situ CEM Systems
IN-SITU SYSTEMS VS. EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 7 FLOW RATE MONITORS
REFERENCE METHODS FOR VOLUMETRIC FLOW
Type-S Pitot Tube (Method 2)
Three-Dimensional Pitot Tubes (Method 2F)
Yaw-Nulling (Method 2G)
Wall-Effect Measurements (Method 2H and CTM-041)
Vane Anemometers
Tracer Gas Dilution
CONTINUOUS FLOW MONITORING METHODS
Single Type-S Pitot Tube
Averaging Differential Pressure Probes
Thermal Mass Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flow Monitors
Time-of-Flight Methods
OTHER METHODS
The Stack Venturi
Physical Models
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Determination of Flow Rates from Engineering Calculations
MONITORING FLOW IN PIPES
CALIBRATING FLOW MONITORING SYSTEMS
The “Pre-RATA” and the K Factor
Problems in Calibrating Against a Reference Method
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR FLOW MONITOR CERTIFICATION
Part 60 Appendix B Performance Specification 6
Part 75 Appendix A Specifications.
Environment Canada Specifications
EN-ISO 16911 Specifications
FLOW MONITOR QUALITY ASSURANCE
Daily Calibration Checks
Daily Interference Checks
Quarterly Leak Checks
Flow-to-Load Ratio Test
Semiannual/Annual RATA
CHAPTER 8 OPACITY MONITORS
BASIC COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSOMETERS
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS AND MANUFACTURER’S PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR OPACITY MONITORS
Opacity Monitoring Specific Design Criteria
Manufacturers’ Performance Specification Tests
Design Specifications For Low-Level Opacity Monitors
OPACITY MONITOR INSTRUMENT DESIGN
Beam Splitter Techniques
Optical Density/Opacity Calculations
Stack-Exit Correlation
Calibration Filter Selection
Combiner Equations
Opacity–Mass Correlations
OPACITY MONITOR PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
Installation Requirements
Field Audit Performance Tests
Opacity Monitor Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance Plan
Daily Zero and Upscale Calibration Drift Test
Quarterly Audit – Three-Point Calibration Error Test
Annual Primary Zero Alignment
Corrective Maintenance and Diagnostic Tests
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 9 CONTINUOUS PARTICULATE MONITORING
REGULATORY SPECIFICATIONS
CALIBRATING PARTICULATE MATTER CEMS (PM CEMS)
Reference Method Tests
Statistical Analysis Procedures
Issues Associated with the Correlation Method
CONTINUOUS PARAMETER MONITORING SYSTEMS (PM CPMS)
Determining the Operating Limit (Case A)
Determining the Operating Limit (Case B)
BAG LEAK DETECTORS (BLD)
ALTERNATIVE CALIBRATION METHODS
Generating Reference Samples
Mass References
Particle Size Standards
PARTICULATE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Accumulated Mass Sensors
Optical Sensors
Hybrid (Combination) Systems
Monitoring in Wet Stacks
Probe Electrification Methods – Triboelectric Devices Applied for Bag Leak Detection
Choosing a PM System
PM CEMS QUALITY ASSURANCE – REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTINIUING OPERATION
The Quality Assurance/Quality Control Manual
Routine Checks
Quarterly Audits
PM Correlation Audits
DEVELOPMENTS IN PM CEMS
CHAPTER 10 CEM SYSTEM CONTROL, DATA ACQUISITION, AND REPORTING
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Computer Control
Programmable Logic Controllers
Data Loggers
Embedded Microprocessors
THE DAHS COMPUTER
CEM System Software Development
Data Handling Functions of the DAHS Computer
Data Reporting
The U.S. EPA Excess Emission Report
The U.S. EPA Part 75 Electronic Data Report
Other U.S. Reporting Programs
Communication
DAHS QUALITY ASSURANCE
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 11 CERTIFYING CEM SYSTEMS
PART 60 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS AND TEST PROCEDURES
Installation Specifications
PART 60 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS MONITORING SYSTEMS
Span
Calibration Drift Capability
PART 60 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS MONITORS
Performance Specification Test (PST) Procedures in the United States and Canada
The Calibration Drift (Error) Test
Part 60 Calibration Drift Calculations
The Linearity (Measurement Error) Test
The Environment Canada Calibration Drift Test
Cycle Time/Response Time Test
Dynamic Spiking Test (Method of Standard Additions)
The Relative Accuracy Test
Bias Tests
Relative Accuracy Procedure as a Percentage of the Emission Limit
Relative Accuracy as a Percentage of Certified Gas Concentration (Alternative Procedures)
The Relative Accuracy Test Report
Causes for Failure of a Relative Accuracy Test
PART 75 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
PART 63.8 MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
ENVIRONMENT CANADA EPS/1/PG/7 CEM GUIDELINES
INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO CEM SYSTEM CERTIFICATION AND APPROVAL
International Standards Organization (ISO) Standards for Gas Monitoring Systems
The European Union EN 14181 Standard for Automated Monitoring Systems
DEVELOPING CEM CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS
CHAPTER 12 MONITORING FOR MERCURY
MERCURY ISSUES
MERCURY REGULATIONS
Coal-Fired Electric Generating Units
Cement Plants
Municipal Waste Combustors and Incinerators
Canadian Mercury Regulations
Mercury Emissions Outside of North America
MERCURY MONITORING
Analytical Methods for Mercury Monitoring
Continuous Mercury Monitoring Systems
Calibrators
SORBENT TRAP MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS
Sorbent Trap System Design Criteria
Required Calibrations
PS-12B QUALITY CONTROL CRITERIA
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sorbent Trap Systems
CONTINUOUS MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS – CERTIFICATION
Sorbent Trap Monitoring Systems – Certification
CONTINUOUS MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS – QUALITY ASSURANCE
Sorbent Trap Mercury Monitoring Systems – Quality Assurance
REFERENCE TEST METHODS FOR MERCURY
Ontario Hydro Method – Standard Test Method for Elemental, Oxidized, Particle-Bound and Total Mercury in Flue Gas Generated from Coal-Fired Stationary Sources (ASTM D6784)
EPA Test Method 30A – Determination of Total Vapor-Phase Mercury Emissions
EPA Test Method 30B – Determination of Total Vapor-Phase Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Combustion Sources using Carbon Sorbent Traps
EPA Test Method 29 – Determination of Metals Emissions from Stationary Sources
EPA Test Method 101A – Determination of Particulate and Gaseous Mercury Emissions from Sewage Sludge Incinerators
CHAPTER 13 MONITORING HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
PART 61 NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (NESHAPS)
40 CFR 63 AIR TOXICS PROGAM GENERAL PROVISIONS
Definitions (§63.7)
Performance Testing (§63.7)
Monitoring Requirements (§63.8)
Quality Control Programs [§63.8(d)]
Performance Evaluation of CEMS [§63.8(e)]
Recordkeeping and Reporting (§63.10)
PART 63 SUBPARTS – SOURCE-SPECIFIC HAP MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
Major Sources Affected by the Air Toxics Rule
METHODS FOR MEASURING HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
MONITORING FOR ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Gas Chromatography
Total Hydrocarbon Analyzers
Mass Spectrometry
Calorimeters
Ion-Mobility Spectrometry
MONITORING FOR ACID GASES
Options for Monitoring Acid Gases
HCl Calibration Gases
MONITORING FOR METALS
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry
Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy
Certifying Multi-metal CEM Systems
Particulate Matter Surrogate Monitoring
POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZODIOXINS AND POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZOFURANS
Dioxin/Furan Continuous Emission Monitoring Options in Part 63
SUMMARY – MEASURING HAPS
CHAPTER 14 GREENHOUSE GAS MONITORING
METRICS USED IN REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
Gas Concentration
Pollutant Mass Rate
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e)
Carbon (Emission) Intensity
Per Capita CO2 Emissions
Metrics and Their Implications
DIRECT MEASUREMENT AND ESTIMATION METHODS FOR GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
IPCC EMISSION INVENTORY PROCEDURES
REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – U.S. MANDATORY GREENHOUSE GAS REPORTING RULE
The Tier Approach: Part 98 Subpart C – Calculating CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion
Approaches to Reporting – Examples
Uncertainties
REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – CANADA
REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – EUROPEAN UNION
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATION (ISO) GREENHOUSE GAS STANDARDS
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 15 QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMS FOR CEM SYSTEMS
A QUALITY ASSURANCE FRAMEWORK
PROCUREMENT QUALITY CONTROL
Prepurchase Evaluation/Selection
CEM System Technical Specifications
Record Keeping
Proposal Evaluations
CERTIFICATION QUALITY CONTROL
The Source Testing Company
The Performance Specification Test Plan
Performance Specification Test Quality Assurance Recommendations
CONTINUING OPERATION – QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMS
Writing the Quality Assurance Manual
CONTINUING OPERATION – ELEMENTS OF QUALITY CONTROL
Daily Calibration Drift Verifications
Periodic System Inspections
Maintenance
Managing Change
Declaring Obsolescence
Logbook Documentation
CONTINUING OPERATION – AUDIT PROCEDURES
Performance Audits
Other Techniques
CONTINUING OPERATION – SYSTEMS AUDITS/AGENCY INSPECTIONS
Entrance Briefing
CEM System Site Tour
Calibration and Audit Gases
Auditing in the CEM Shelter
System Condition – Analyzer Control Panels/Analyzers
Unit Operator(s) Interview
Spare Parts Inventory
Review of Records and Data
The Exit Briefing
The Audit Report
The Quality Assurance Cycle
APPENDIX B UNITS OF THE STANDARD AND F FACTORS
CONCENTRATION-BASED STANDARDS
The Basic Concentration Measurements (ppm, Percent)
POLLUTANT MASS RATE STANDARDS
PROCESS EMISSIONS WEIGHT RATE STANDARDS
EMISSION RATE FOR COMBUSTION SOURCES: THERMAL
EMISSION RATE FOR COMBUSTION SOURCES: THERMAL – F-FACTOR APPROACH
The Oxygen-Based Dry F Factor, Fd
The Oxygen-Based Wet F Factor, Fw
The Carbon Dioxide-Based F Factor, Fc
Tabulated F Factors and Conversion Factors
Other Uses of F Factors
Errors and Problems in the Use of F Factors
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
APPENDIX B CONVERSION FACTORS AND USEFUL INFORMATION
CONSTANTS
IUPAC STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (STP)
EPA STANDARD CONDITIONS
Molecular Weights and Gas Concentration Units
Atomic Weight
CONVERSION EXPRESSIONS
Temperature
CONVERSION FACTORS
Length
Volume
Mass
Mass per Unit Volume
Velocity
Energy
Power
Power Estimation Factors
Index
EULA