Contaminants in Agriculture: Sources, Impacts and Management

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Overview of Contaminants in Agriculture
Organic and Inorganic Fertilizer Contaminants in Agriculture: Impact on Soil and Water Resources
1 Introduction
1.1 Inorganic Fertilizers: Consumption and Contaminants
1.2 Organic Fertilizers and Contaminants
2 Contaminant Sources in Various Fertilizers and Manures
2.1 Nitrogenous Fertilizers
2.2 Phosphatic Fertilizers
2.3 Potassium Fertilizers
2.4 Organic Fertilizers
2.4.1 Heavy Metals: Major Contaminant in Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers
3 Fertilizers and Manures and Their Impact on Soil Health
3.1 Impact on Soil Properties
3.1.1 Effect on Soil Physical Health
3.1.2 Effect on Chemical Properties
3.1.3 Effect on Microbial Life
3.2 Water Quality Issues Associated with Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers
3.2.1 Nitrogen Contamination in Water Bodies
3.2.2 Nitrate Management in Ground Water
3.2.3 Phosphorus Contamination in Water Bodies
3.2.4 Organic Fertilizer and Water Quality
3.3 Impact of Contaminants on Human Life
4 Conclusion
References
Role of Nutrients in Plant Growth and Development
1 Introduction
2 Nutrients That Limit Plant Growth and Development
2.1 Nitrogen
2.2 Phosphorus
2.3 Potassium
2.4 Sulfur
2.5 Calcium
2.6 Magnesium
3 Micronutrients
3.1 Boron
3.2 Zinc
3.3 Manganese
3.4 Molybdenum
3.5 Iron
3.6 Copper
3.7 Nickel
3.8 Chlorine
4 Availability of Mineral Nutrients in Soil
5 Conclusion
References
Role of Organic Fertilizers in Improving Soil Fertility
1 Introduction
2 Types of Soil Fertility
3 Types of Organic Fertilizer
4 Advantages of Using Organic Fertilizers
5 Disadvantages of Using Organic Fertilizers
6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Effect of Heavy Metals on Plant Growth: An Overview
1 Introduction
2 Source of Heavy Metals
2.1 Natural Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination
2.1.1 Weathering of Rocks
2.1.2 Other Natural Sources
2.2 Anthropogenic Sources
2.2.1 Agricultural Sources
2.2.2 Industrial Sources
2.2.3 Domestic Effluents
3 Impacts of Heavy Metal Toxicity on Plants
3.1 Heavy Metals That Function As Micronutrients
3.1.1 Iron
3.1.2 Copper
3.1.3 Zinc
3.1.4 Manganese
3.1.5 Cobalt
3.1.6 Nickel
3.2 Heavy Metals That Are Not Vital for Plant Growth
3.2.1 Lead
3.2.2 Arsenic
3.2.3 Mercury
3.2.4 Cadmium
4 Plant Defense Mechanisms Adopted by Plants Against Heavy Metal Stress
4.1 Trichomes
4.2 Cell Wall and Root Exudates
4.3 Plasma Membrane
4.4 Vacuolar Compartmentalization
4.5 Mycorrhizae
4.6 Phytochelatins
4.7 Metallothioneins
5 Remediation of Heavy Metals
5.1 Cyanoremediation
5.2 Bioremediation
5.3 Mycoremediation
5.4 Phytoremediation
6 Future Perspective and Conclusions
References
Effect of Acid Rain on Plant Growth and Development: Physiological and Molecular Interventions
1 Introduction
1.1 Basic Concept of Acid Rain
2 Causes and Formation of Acid Rain
2.1 Acid Formation in the Presence of Sulfur
2.2 Acid Formation in the Presence of Nitrogen
2.3 Acid Formation in the Presence of Ozone (O3)
3 Problems Related to Acid Rain on Plants
3.1 Impact of Acid Rain on Plant Growth
3.2 Impact of Acid Rain on Photosynthesis in Plants
3.3 Impact of Acid Rain on Antioxidant System in Plants
3.4 Impact of Acid Rain on Gene Expression in Plants
4 Conclusions
References
Part II: Sources of Contaminants and Their Impacts on Agriculture
Heavy Metals: Source, Toxicity Mechanisms, Health Effects, Nanotoxicology and Their Bioremediation
1 Introduction
2 Occurrence of Heavy Metals in Biosphere
3 Toxicity of Heavy Metals
3.1 Lead
3.1.1 Toxicity Mechanism of Lead
3.2 Arsenic
3.2.1 Mechanism of Arsenic Toxicity
3.3 Chromium
3.3.1 Mechanism of Toxicity
3.4 Mercury
3.4.1 Toxicity Mechanism of Mercury
4 Role of Nanoparticles in Heavy Metal Accumulation and Toxicity
References
Heavy Metal–Induced Gene Expression in Plants
1 Introduction
2 Phytoremediation
3 Plants as Accumulators of Heavy Metals
4 Hyperaccumulators
5 Brassicaceae
6 Brassica Species
7 Heavy Metal Uptake, Accumulation, and Subcellular Localization
8 Heavy Metal Transporters in Plants
8.1 ZIP Gene Family
8.2 CDF-Type Family
8.3 COPT Gene Family
8.4 Nramp Gene Family
8.5 ABC-Type Family
9 P1B-Type Metal ATPases (HMAs)
9.1 Interactome Analysis Between HMAs and Other Metal Transporters
10 Recent Advances and New Possibilities in Phytoremediation
11 Conclusion
References
Nano-contaminants: Sources and Impact on Agriculture
1 Introduction
2 Nanotechnology and Its Application in Agriculture
3 Nanocontaminants and Their Effects, Phytotoxicity of Nanoparticles, or Nanocontaminants in Agriculture
4 Classification of Nanoparticles as Nanocontaminates
5 Nanobiosensors
6 Application of Nanosensor in Agriculture
7 Impact of Nanocontaminants in Agriculture
8 Some Existing Regulation of Agricultural Nanoproducts
9 Conclusion and Future Aspects
References
Heavy Metal Toxicity and Tolerance in Crop Plants
1 Introduction
2 Uptake of Heavy Metals and Their Translocation
3 Impact of Heavy Metals on Plant Metabolism
4 Heavy Metal Toxicity and Impact on Plant Growth
4.1 Arsenic
4.2 Lead
4.3 Mercury
4.4 Cadmium
5 Heavy Metal Sequestration in Plants
6 Role of Metal Chelators in Heavy Metal Sequestration
6.1 Phytochelatins
6.2 Metallothioneins
6.3 Organic Acids and Amino Acids
7 Conclusion
References
Part III: Management Strategies: Utilization, Engineered Applications and Bioremediation of Agricultural Contaminants
Planning and Engineering Strategies of Agricultural Wastes and Their Remediation Strategies
1 Introduction
2 Waste Generation Activities
2.1 Farming Practices
2.2 Food Processing Units
2.3 Livestock
2.4 Use of Fertilizers
3 Removal Strategies of Agricultural Wastes
3.1 Effluent Flotation
3.2 Direct Combustion/Incineration
3.3 Pyrolysis
4 Bioremediation of Agricultural Waste
4.1 Composting
4.2 Anaerobic Digestion
5 Agricultural Waste Management Strategies
5.1 Functions of AWMS
5.1.1 Production
5.1.2 Collection
5.1.3 Storage
5.1.4 Treatment
5.1.5 Utilization
5.2 The “3R” Approach in AWM
6 Conclusion
References
The Use of Constructed Wetlands to Mitigate Pollution from Agricultural Runoff
1 Introduction
2 Agricultural Runoff and Associated Pollutants
2.1 Fertilisers
2.2 Pesticides
3 Constructed Wetlands for Agricultural Runoff Mitigation
3.1 Types of CWs Applied for Agricultural Runoff
3.2 CWs Efficiency for Mitigating Agricultural Runoff Pollutants
3.3 Factors Affecting CWs Treatment Efficiency
3.4 The Role of Plants
4 Conclusion
References
Role of Nitrogen and Its Agricultural Management in Changing Environment
1 Nitrogen
2 Background
3 Nitrogen Cycle
3.1 Nitrogen Fixation
3.1.1 Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF)
3.1.2 Industrial Nitrogen Fixation (INF)
3.2 Nitrogen Mineralization
3.3 Nitrogen Assimilation
3.4 Denitrification
3.5 Nitrogen Immobilization
4 Loss of Nitrogen from Agricultural Soils
4.1 Leaching
4.2 Denitrification
4.3 Ammonia Volatilization
4.4 Soil Erosion and Surface Runoff
5 Nitrogen Use in Agriculture and Climate Change
5.1 Global Temperature Change Potential of N2O Emission from Agriculture
5.2 Net Global Temperature Change Potential of Nitrogen Use in Agriculture
6 Nitrogen Loss from Agriculture and Environmental Consequences
6.1 Climate Change
6.2 Groundwater Pollution
6.3 Eutrophication
6.4 Atmospheric N Deposition
7 Nitrogen-Use Efficiency
7.1 Site-Specific Nitrogen Management (SSNM)
7.2 Integrated Nitrogen Management (INM)
7.3 Precision Nitrogen Management
8 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Efficient Transformation of Agricultural Waste in India
1 Introduction
2 Agricultural Waste Characterization
3 Waste Reuse and Recycling
4 Waste Management and Optimization
5 Conclusion
References
Impact of Biofertilisers on Crop Production Under Contaminated Soils
1 Introduction
1.1 Biofertiliser: Significance in Sustaining Crop Productivity and Soil Health
2 Mechanism of Action of Various Biofertilisers
2.1 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
2.1.1 Mechanism of Nutrient Absorption by AM Fungi
2.1.2 Mechanism of Water Absorption by AM Fungi
2.2 Phosphate-Solubilising Microorganisms (PSMs)
2.2.1 Mechanisms of Inorganic Phosphate Solubilisation by PSMs
2.2.2 Mechanisms of Organic Phosphorus Mineralisation by PSMs
2.2.3 Mechanism of N-Fixation by Rhizobium
2.2.4 Mechanism of N-Fixation in Anabaena azollae
2.3 Soil Contamination and Agriculture
2.4 Sources of Soil Contamination
2.5 Physical Soil Remediation Techniques
2.6 Biological Soil Remediation Techniques
2.6.1 Microbial Remediation
2.6.2 Phytoremediation
2.6.3 Fungal Remediation
2.6.4 Compost Remediation
3 Role of Biofertiliser in Bioremediation
4 Case Studies on Bioremediation Using Biofertilisers
5 Future Perspectives and Way Forward
References
Intimidating Effects of Heavy Metals on Mentha Species and Their Mitigation Using Scientific Approaches
1 Introduction
2 The Genus Mentha
3 Effects of HMs on Mentha Species
3.1 Effect of Cadmium (Cd)
3.2 Effect of Lead (Pb)
3.3 Effect of Mercury (Hg)
3.4 Effect of Chromium (Cr)
3.5 Effect of Copper (Cu)
3.6 Effect of Vanadium (V)
3.7 Effect of Arsenic (As)
3.8 Effect of Nickel (Ni)
3.9 Effect of Cobalt (Co)
4 Mitigation of HMs Using Scientific Approaches
5 Radiation-Processed Polysaccharides Act as Plant Growth Promoters
6 Crosstalk Mechanism of the Biosynthetic Pathway in Plants
7 Conclusion
References
Arsenic-Contaminated Soil Toxicity and Its Mitigation Through Monocot Crops
1 Introduction
2 Soil Toxicity
3 Arsenic-Contaminated Soil in West Bengal
4 Biological Approaches to Mitigation
5 Conclusion
References
Role of Cobalt in Plants: Its Stress and Alleviation
1 Introduction
2 Cobalt Absorption and Its Transport in Plants
3 Biochemical Role of Cobalt
4 Interactions with Other Heavy Metals
5 Effects of Ethylene Levels on Cobalt Function
6 Cobalt Accumulation in Plants
7 Beneficial Effects of Co on Plants
7.1 Stress Alleviation
7.1.1 Curbing of Salinity Stress
7.1.2 Alleviation of Cadmium Stress
7.1.3 Alleviation of Osmotic Stress
8 Effect of Cobalt Treatment on Leguminous Plants
8.1 Effects on Growth and Yield
8.2 Effects on Nodulation and Nitrogen Fixation
8.3 Effects on Nutrient Uptake
9 Effect of Cobalt Treatment on Nonleguminous Plants
10 Toxic Effects of Cobalt on Plants
11 Cobalt Toxicity Symptoms
12 Cobalt Stress in Plants and Its Alleviation
13 Conclusions
References
Part IV: Approaches and Challenges for Crop Protection and Production Under Contaminated Soils
Bioremediation of Toxic Pollutants: Features, Strategies, and Applications
1 Introduction
2 Salient Features of Bioremediation
3 Natural and Living Agents of Bioremediation
3.1 Bioremediation
3.2 Mycoremediation
3.3 Phycoremediation or Cyanoremediation
3.4 Phytoremediation
3.4.1 Phytoextraction
3.4.2 Phytotransformation
3.4.3 Phytostabilization
3.4.4 Phytovolatilization
3.4.5 Phytofiltration or Rhizofiltration
3.4.6 Rhizodegradation
3.4.7 Phytodegradation
4 Techniques Involved in Bioremediation
5 Recent Developments in Remediation Technology
6 Applications of Bioremediation
7 Limitations of Bioremediation
8 Conclusions
References
Utilisation of Sericulture Waste by Employing Possible Approaches
1 Introduction
2 Waste Generation in Sericulture
3 Utilisation of Wastes from the Pre-cocoon Sector
3.1 The Potential of Biogas Generation
3.2 Potential Composting Materials
3.3 Vermicompost
4 Waste Generation from Post-cocoon Sector
4.1 Utilisation of Pupal Waste
4.2 Utilisation of Fibrous Silk Waste
5 Summary and Outlook
References
Inimical Effects of Arsenic on the Plant Physiology and Possible Biotechnological Solutions to Mitigate Arsenic-Induced Toxicity
1 Introduction
2 Arsenic Uptake in Plants
2.1 Mechanism of Arsenic Uptake
2.2 Arsenate Uptake
2.3 Uptake of Arsenite
2.4 Uptake of Methylated Arsenic Species
3 Arsenic Impact on Plant Physiology
3.1 Photosynthesis
3.2 Chlorophyll Content
3.3 Mineral Absorption
3.4 ATP Synthesis
3.5 Membrane Damage
3.6 Plant Growth
4 Arsenic and Cellular Metabolism
4.1 Oxidative Stress
4.2 Arsenic Aggravates ROS Generation
4.3 Vacuolar Sequestration of Toxic Metal Complexes
4.4 Lipid Metabolism
4.5 Carbohydrate Metabolism in Plants
4.6 Protein Metabolism
4.7 DNA Structure
5 Proteomic Responses of Plants to Arsenic Stress
6 Genomic Analysis of Plants on Exposure to Arsenic
7 Defense Mechanisms Against Arsenic in Plants
8 Potential Biotechnological Strategies to Mitigate Arsenic Toxicity
8.1 Bioremediation
8.1.1 Biosorption
8.2 Phytoremediation
8.2.1 Manipulation of Genes and Metal Uptake System
8.2.2 Enrichment of Metalloid Ligands
8.3 Genetic Engineering
8.3.1 Arsenate Reduction by Genetic Manipulation
8.3.2 Genetic Modification for Vacuolar Sequestration
8.3.3 Genetic Engineering for Volatilization
8.3.4 Genetic Modification for Enhanced Translocation Between Shoot and Root
References
Vermicompost Leachate Use for the Irrigation of Two South American Woody Plant Species
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Vermicomposting and Leachate Production
2.2 Leachate Stabilization and Sampling
2.3 A. inulifolium and E. crista-galli Bioassays
2.4 Plant Growth
2.5 Substrate Characterization
2.6 Phytotoxicity
2.7 Statistical Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Leachate, Irrigation Solutions, and Substrate Characterization
3.2 A. inulifolium and E. crista-galli Growth
3.3 Leachate Phytotoxicity
4 Conclusions
References
Index