Concrete Permeability and Durability Performance: From Theory to Field Applications

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Authors
1 Durability performance of concrete structures
1.1 What Is Durability?
1.2 Deterioration Mechanisms of Concrete Structures
1.2.1 Carbonation-Induced Steel Corrosion
1.2.2 Chloride-Induced Steel Corrosion
1.2.3 External Sulphate Attack
1.2.4 Alkali-Silica Reaction
1.2.5 Freezing and Thawing
1.3 Deterioration Process of Concrete Structures
1.4 The Costs of Lack of Durability
1.5 Economical, Ecological and Social Impacts of Durability
1.6 Durability Design: The Classical Prescriptive Approach
1.6.1 Compressive Strength as Durability Indicator
1.6.2 Water/Cement Ratio as Durability Indicator
1.6.3 Cement Content as Durability Indicator
1.6.4 Cover Thickness as Durability Indicator
1.7 Durability Design: The Performance Approach
1.7.1 The “Durability Test” Question
1.7.2 Canadian Standards
1.7.3 Argentine and Spanish Codes
1.7.4 Japanese Architectural Code
1.7.5 Portuguese Standards
1.7.6 South African Standards
1.7.7 Swiss Standards
1.8 Concrete Permeability as “Durability Indicator”
1.9 Beyond 50 Years: Modelling
References
2 Permeability as key concrete property
2.1 Foundations of Permeation Laws
2.2 Relation between Permeability and Pore Structure of Concrete
2.3 Permeability as Key Concrete Property
2.3.1 Permeability for Liquids’ Containment
2.3.1.1 ACI Low Permeability Concrete
2.3.1.2 Dams
2.3.1.3 Pervious Concrete
2.3.1.4 Liquid Gas Containers
2.3.2 Permeability for Gas Containment
2.3.2.1 Evacuated Tunnels for High-Speed Trains
2.3.2.2 Underground Gas “Batteries”
2.3.3 Permeability for Radiation Containment
2.3.3.1 Radon Gas
2.3.3.2 Nuclear Waste Disposal Containers
2.4 Permeability and Durability
References
3 Theory: concrete microstructure and transport of matter
3.1 Cement Hydration
3.1.1 Main Hydration Reactions and Resulting Changes
3.1.2 Hydrothermal Conditions for Hydration (Curing)
3.2 Microstructure of Hardened Concrete
3.2.1 Overview
3.2.2 Microstructure of Hardened Cement Paste
3.2.3 Interfacial Transition Zone
3.2.4 Pore Structure of Hardened Concrete
3.2.5 Binding
3.3 Water in the Pores of Hardened Concrete
3.4 Mechanisms of Transport of Matter through Concrete
3.4.1 Diffusion: Fick’s Laws
3.4.2 Migration: Nernst-Planck Equation
3.5 Permeability
3.5.1 Laminar Flow of Newtonian Fluids. Hagen-Poiseuille Law
3.5.2 Water-Permeability: Darcy’s Law
3.5.3 Permeation of Liquids through Cracks
3.5.4 Hagen-Poiseuille-Darcy Law for Gases
3.5.5 Relation between Permeability to Gases and Liquids
3.6 Knudsen and Molecular Gas Flow: Klinkenberg Effect
3.7 Capillary Suction and Water Vapour Diffusion
3.7.1 Capillary Suction: A Special Case of Water-Permeability
3.7.2 Water Vapour Diffusion
3.8 Transport Parameters and Pore Structure
3.8.1 Relationship between Transport Parameters and Pore Structure
3.8.2 Permeability Predictions: Theory vs Experiments
3.8.2.1 Gas- and Water-Permeability vs Pore Structure
3.8.2.2 Water Sorptivity vs Pore Structure
3.9 Theoretical Relationship between Transport Parameters
References
4 Test methods to measure permeability of concrete
4.1 Water-Permeability
4.1.1 Laboratory Water-Permeability Tests
4.1.1.1 Steady-State Flow Test
4.1.1.2 Non Steady-State Flow Test: Water-Penetration under Pressure
4.1.2 Site Water-Permeability Tests
4.1.2.1 Germann Test
4.1.2.2 Autoclam System
4.1.2.3 Field Water-Permeability
4.2 Sorptivity: Special Case of Water-Permeability
4.2.1 Laboratory Sorptivity Tests
4.2.2 Site Sorptivity Tests
4.2.2.1 ISAT
4.2.2.2 Karsten Tube
4.2.2.3 Figg
4.2.2.4 Autoclam System
4.2.2.5 SWAT
4.2.2.6 WIST
4.3 Gas-Permeability
4.3.1 Laboratory Gas-Permeability Test Methods
4.3.1.1 Influence of Moisture and the Need for Pre-Conditioning
4.3.1.2 Cembureau Gas-Permeability Test
4.3.1.3 South African Oxygen-Permeability Index Test
4.3.2 Site Gas-Permeability Test Methods
4.3.2.1 Figg
4.3.2.2 Hong-Parrott
4.3.2.3 Paulmann
4.3.2.4 TUD
4.3.2.5 GGT
4.3.2.6 Paulini
4.3.2.7 Autoclam System
4.3.2.8 Single-Chamber Vacuum Cell
4.3.2.9 Double-Chamber Vacuum Cell (Torrent)
4.3.2.10 Triple-Chamber Vacuum Cell (Kurashige)
4.3.2.11 Zia-Guth
4.3.2.12 “Seal” Method
4.3.3 Assessment of Concrete Quality by Gas-Permeability Test Methods
4.4 Comparative Test RILEM TC 189-NEC
4.4.1 Objective and Experiment Design
4.4.2 Evaluation of Test Results
4.4.2.1 Significance of Test Method
4.4.2.2 Correlation between Site and “Reference” Tests
4.4.2.3 Conclusions of the Comparative Test
Acknowledgements
References
5 Torrent NDT method for coefficient of air-permeability
5.1 Introduction: Why a Separate Chapter?
5.2 The Origin
5.3 Fundamentals of the Test Method
5.3.1 Principles of the Test Method
5.3.2 Historical Evolution
5.3.3 Operation of the Instrument
5.3.4 Model for the Calculation of the Coefficient of Air-Permeability kT
5.3.5 Relation between Δ P and √t
5.3.5.1 Theoretical Linear Response
5.3.5.2 Lack of Linear Response: Possible Causes
5.3.6 Relation between L and kT. Thickness Correction
5.3.6.1 Relation between Test Penetration L and kT
5.3.6.2 Correction of kT for Thickness
5.4 Relevant Features of the Test Method
5.5 Interpretation of Test Results
5.5.1 Permeability Classes
5.5.2 Microstructural Interpretation
5.6 Repeatability and Reproducibility
5.6.1 Testing Variability: Repeatability
5.6.2 Within-Sample Variability
5.6.3 Global Variability
5.6.4 Reproducibility
5.6.4.1 Reproducibility for Same Brand
5.6.4.2 Reproducibility for Different Brands
5.7 Effects and Influences on kT
5.7.1 Influence of Temperature of Concrete Surface
5.7.1.1 Influence of Low Concrete Temperature
5.7.1.2 Influence of High Air Temperature and Solar Radiation
5.7.2 Influence of Moisture of Concrete Surface
5.7.2.1 Influence of Natural and Oven Drying on kT
5.7.2.2 Compensation of kT for Surface Moisture
5.7.2.3 Pre-conditioning of Laboratory Specimens for kT Measurements
5.7.3 Effect/Influence of Age on kT
5.7.3.1 Effect/Influence of Age on Young Concrete
5.7.3.2 Effect/Influence of Age on Mature Concrete
5.7.4 Influence of Vicinity of Steel Bars
5.7.5 Influence of the Conditions of the Surface Tested
5.7.5.1 Influence of Specimen Geometry and Surface
5.7.5.2 Influence of Curvature
5.7.5.3 Influence of Roughness
5.7.5.4 Effect/Influence of Surface Air-Bubbles
5.7.6 Influence of Initial Pressure P[sub(0)]
5.7.7 Influence of Porosity on the Recorded kT Value
5.8 Statistical Evaluation of kT Test Results
5.8.1 Statistical Distribution of kT Results
5.8.2 Central Value and Scatter Statistical Parameters
5.8.2.1 Parametric Analysis
5.8.2.2 Non-Parametric Analysis
5.8.3 Interpretation and Presentation of Results
5.9 Testing Procedures for Measuring kT in the Laboratory and On Site
References
6 Effect of key technological factors on concrete permeability
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Effect of w/c Ratio and Compressive Strength on Concrete Permeability
6.2.1 Data Sources
6.2.1.1 HMC Laboratories
6.2.1.2 ETHZ Cubes
6.2.1.3 General Building Research Corporation of Japan
6.2.1.4 University of Cape Town
6.2.1.5 KEMA
6.2.1.6 Other
6.2.2 Effect of w/c Ratio and Strength on Gas-Permeability
6.2.2.1 Cembureau Test Method
6.2.2.2 OPI Test Method
6.2.2.3 Torrent kT Test Method
6.2.3 Effect of w/c Ratio on Water-Permeability
6.2.3.1 Water Penetration under Pressure
6.2.3.2 Water Sorptivity
6.3 Effect of Binder on Concrete Permeability
6.3.1 Effect of OPC Strength on Permeability
6.3.2 Effect of Binder Type on Permeability
6.3.2.1 “Conventional” Binders
6.3.2.2 “Unconventional” Binders
6.4 Effect of Aggregate on Concrete Permeability
6.4.1 Effect of Bulk Aggregate on Concrete Permeability
6.4.1.1 Porous Aggregates
6.4.1.2 Recycled Aggregates
6.4.1.3 Spherical Steel Slag Aggregates
6.4.2 Effect of ITZ on Concrete Permeability
6.5 Effect of Special Constituents on Concrete Permeability
6.5.1 Pigments
6.5.2 Fibres
6.5.3 Polymers
6.5.4 Expansive Agents
6.6 Effect of Compaction, Segregation and Bleeding on Permeability
6.7 Effect of Curing on Permeability
6.7.1 Relevance of Curing for Concrete Quality
6.7.2 Effect of Curing on Permeability
6.7.2.1 Investigations in the Laboratory
6.7.2.2 Investigations in the Field
6.7.3 Effect of Curing on Air-Permeability kT
6.7.3.1 Conventional Curing
6.7.3.2 Self-Curing
6.7.3.3 Accelerated Curing
6.7.3.4 “3M-Sheets” Curing
6.8 Effect of Temperature on Permeability
6.9 Effect of Moisture on Permeability
6.10 Effect of Applied Stresses on Permeability
6.10.1 Effect of Compressive Stresses
6.10.2 Effect of Tensile Stresses
6.11 Permeability of Cracked Concrete
6.11.1 Permeability through Cracks: Theory
6.11.2 Effect of Cracks on Permeability
6.11.3 Self-Healing of Cracks and Permeability
References
7 Why durability needs to be assessed on site?
7.1 Theorecrete, Labcrete, Realcrete and Covercrete
7.1.1 Theorecrete
7.1.2 Labcrete
7.1.3 Realcrete
7.1.4 Covercrete
7.1.5 Quality Loss between Covercrete and Labcrete
7.1.5.1 Bözberg Tunnel
7.1.5.2 Schaffhausen Bridge
7.1.5.3 Lisbon Viaduct
7.1.5.4 Swiss Bridges’ Elements
7.2 Achieving High Covercrete’s Quality
7.2.1 Mix Design and Curing
7.2.2 UHPFRC
7.2.3 Controlled Permeable Formwork (CPF) Liners
7.2.3.1 Action Mechanism of CPF Liners
7.2.3.2 Impact of CPF on the “Penetrability” of the Covercrete
7.2.4 Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete
7.2.5 Self-Consolidating Concrete
7.2.6 Permeability-Reducing Agents
7.3 Cover Thickness
7.4 Spacers and Permeability
7.5 Concluding Remarks
References
8 Why air-permeability kT as durability indicator?
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Response of kT to Changes in Key Technological Parameters of Concrete
8.3 Correlation with Other Durability Tests
8.3.1 Gas Permeability
8.3.1.1 Cembureau Test
8.3.1.2 South-African OPI
8.3.1.3 Figg Air and TUD Permeability
8.3.2 Oxygen-Diffusivity
8.3.3 Capillary Suction
8.3.3.1 Coefficient of Water Absorption at 24 Hours
8.3.3.2 Figg Water
8.3.3.3 Karsten Tube
8.3.4 Water-Permeability and Penetration under Pressure
8.3.5 Migration
8.3.5.1 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (“RCPT” ASTM C1202)
8.3.5.2 Coefficient of Chloride Migration (NT Build 492)
8.3.5.3 Electrical Resistivity (Wenner Method)
8.3.5.4 South African Chloride Conductivity Index
8.3.6 Chloride-Diffusion
8.3.6.1 Laboratory Diffusion Tests
8.3.6.2 Site Chloride Ingress in Old Structures
8.3.7 Carbonation
8.3.7.1 Laboratory Tests (Natural Carbonation)
8.3.7.2 Laboratory Tests (Accelerated Carbonation)
8.3.7.3 Site Carbonation in Old Structures
8.3.8 Frost Resistance
8.4 Some Negative Experiences
8.4.1 Tunnel in Aargau, Switzerland
8.4.2 Wotruba Church, Vienna, Austria
8.4.3 Ministry of Transport, Ontario, Canada
8.4.4 Mansei Bridge, Aomori, Japan
8.4.5 Tests at FDOT Laboratory
8.5 Air-Permeability kT in Standards and Specifications
8.5.1 Swiss Standards
8.5.2 Argentina
8.5.3 Chile
8.5.4 China
8.5.5 India
8.5.6 Japan
8.6 Credentials of Air-Permeability kT as Durability Indicator
References
9 Service life assessment based on site permeability tests
9.1 Introduction
9.2 General Principles of Corrosion Initiation Time Assessment
9.2.1 Carbonation-Induced Steel Corrosion
9.2.2 Chloride-Induced Steel Corrosion
9.3 Service Life Assessment of New Structures with Site Permeability Tests
9.3.1 Carbonation: Parrott’s Model
9.3.2 Carbonation: South African OPI Model
9.3.2.1 “Deemed-to-Satisfy” Approach
9.3.2.2 “Rigorous” Approach
9.3.2.3 Acceptance Criteria
9.3.2.4 Probabilistic Treatment
9.3.3 “Seal” Method for Chloride- Induced Steel Corrosion
9.4 Service Life Assessment of New Structures Applying Site kT Tests
9.4.1 The “TransChlor” Model for Chloride-Induced Steel Corrosion
9.4.2 Kurashige and Hironaga’s Model for Carbonation-Induced Steel Corrosion
9.4.3 The “Exp-Ref” Method: Principles
9.4.3.1 The “Exp-Ref” Method for Chloride-Induced Steel Corrosion
9.4.3.2 The “Exp-Ref” Method for Carbonation-Induced Steel Corrosion
9.4.3.3 The CTK “Cycle” Approach
9.4.4 Belgacem et al.’s Model for Carbonation- Induced Steel Corrosion
9.5 Service Life Assessment of Existing Structures Applying Site kT Tests
9.5.1 Calibration with Drilled Cores
9.5.2 Pure Non-destructive Approach
References
10 The role of permeability in explosive spalling under fire
10.1 Effect of Fire on Reinforced Concrete Structures
10.2 Explosive Spalling of Concrete Cover
10.3 The Role of Concrete Permeability in Explosive Spalling
10.4 Coping with HSC
10.5 Concluding Remarks
References
11 Real cases of kT test applications on site
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Full-Scale Investigations
11.2.1 RILEM TC 230-PSC (Chlorides and Carbonation)
11.2.2 Naxberg Tunnel (Chlorides and Carbonation)
11.2.2.1 Scope of the Investigation
11.2.2.2 Mixes Composition and Laboratory Test Results
11.2.2.3 Characteristics of the 32 Panels
11.2.2.4 On-Site Non-Destructive kT Measurements
11.2.2.5 Core Drilling, Carbonation and Chloride Ingress
11.2.2.6 Conclusions
11.3 New Structures
11.3.1 Port of Miami Tunnel (Carbonation)
11.3.1.1 Description of the Tunnel
11.3.1.2 The Problem
11.3.1.3 Scope of the Investigation
11.3.1.4 Site kT Test Results
11.3.1.5 Modelling Carbonation at 150 Years
11.3.1.6 Conclusions
11.3.2 Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Link (Chlorides)
11.3.3 Panama Canal Expansion (Chlorides)
11.3.4 Precast Coastal Defence Elements (Sulphates)
11.3.4.1 Aggressiveness of the Water
11.3.4.2 Durability Requirements
11.3.4.3 Concrete Mix Quality Compliance
11.3.4.4 Precast Elements’ Compliance
11.3.4.5 Conclusions on the Durability of the Elements
11.3.5 Buenos Aires Metro (Water-Tightness)
11.3.6 HPSFRC in Italy (Water-Tightness)
11.3.6.1 Description of the Case
11.3.6.2 Characteristics of the Concretes Used for the Different Elements
11.3.6.3 Air-Permeability kT Tests Performed
11.3.6.4 Performance of SCC-SFRC Elements
11.3.6.5 Performance of Walls
11.3.6.6 Performance of Precast Columns
11.3.6.7 Conclusions
11.3.7 UHPFRC in Switzerland (Chlorides)
11.3.8 Field Tests on Swiss New Structures
11.3.9 Field Tests on Portuguese New Structures
11.3.9.1 Bridge at the North of Lisbon (Quality Control/Carbonation)
11.3.9.2 Urban Viaduct in Lisbon (Quality Control)
11.3.9.3 Sewage Treatment Plant (Chemical Attack)
11.3.10 Delamination of Industrial Floors in Argentina (“Defects” Detection)
11.4 Old Structures
11.4.1 Old Structures in Japan
11.4.1.1 Tokyo’s National Museum of Western Art (Carbonation)
11.4.1.2 Jyugou Bridge (Condition Assessment)
11.4.1.3 Other Japanese Structures (Condition Assessment)
11.4.2 Old (and New) Swiss Structures (Chlorides + Carbonation)
11.4.2.1 Investigated Structures and Tests Performed
11.4.2.2 Combined Analysis of Results
11.4.2.3 Conclusions of the Investigations
11.4.3 Permeability and Condition of Concrete Structures in the Antarctic
11.4.3.1 The “Carlini” Base
11.4.3.2 The Climate
11.4.3.3 Buildings Construction and Exposure
11.4.3.4 Scope of the Investigation
11.4.3.5 Identified Pathologies
11.4.3.6 On-Site Measurements of Air-Permeability kT
11.4.4 Permeability of a Concrete Structure in the Chilean Atacama Desert
11.5 Unconventional Applications
11.5.1 Concrete Wine Vessels
11.5.2 Rocks and Stones
11.5.2.1 Permeability of Stones as Building Material
11.5.2.2 Permeability of Rocks for Oil and Gas Exploitation
11.5.2.3 Permeability of Rocks for Nuclear Waste Disposal
11.5.3 Timber
11.5.4 Ceramics
References
12 Epilogue: the future
12.1 Chapter 1: Durability
12.2 Chapter 2: Permeability
12.3 Chapter 3: Microstructure and Transport Theories
12.4 Chapter 4: Permeability Test Methods
12.5 Chapter 5: kT Air-Permeability Test Method
12.6 Chapter 6: Factors Influencing Concrete Permeability
12.7 Chapter 7: Theorecrete, Labcrete, Realcrete and Covercrete
12.8 Chapter 8: kT Air-Permeability as Durability Indicator
12.9 Chapter 9: Modelling Based on Site Permeability Tests
12.10 Chapter 10: Gas Permeability and Fire Protection
12.11 Chapter 11: Applications of Air-Permeability kT Tests
References
Annex A: Transport test methods other than permeability
Annex B: Model standard for measuring the coefficient of air-permeability kT of hardened concrete
Index