College Physics

8. Modern Perspective......Page 13
10. Features of OpenStax College Physics......Page 14
14. Expert Reviewers......Page 15
15. Our Partners......Page 16
Chapter 1. Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics......Page 17
1.1. Physics: An Introduction*......Page 18
1.2. Physical Quantities and Units*......Page 25
1.3. Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures*......Page 32
1.4. Approximation*......Page 36
Glossary......Page 38
Chapter 2. Kinematics......Page 43
2.1. Displacement*......Page 44
2.2. Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems*......Page 47
2.3. Time, Velocity, and Speed*......Page 48
2.4. Acceleration*......Page 52
2.5. Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension*......Page 61
2.6. Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics*......Page 71
2.7. Falling Objects*......Page 73
2.8. Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion*......Page 81
Glossary......Page 88
Chapter 3. Two-Dimensional Kinematics......Page 99
3.1. Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction*......Page 100
3.2. Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods*......Page 103
3.3. Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods*......Page 110
3.4. Projectile Motion*......Page 116
3.5. Addition of Velocities*......Page 124
Glossary......Page 132
Chapter 4. Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion......Page 143
4.1. Development of Force Concept*......Page 145
4.3. Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System*......Page 146
4.4. Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces*......Page 152
4.5. Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces*......Page 155
4.6. Problem-Solving Strategies*......Page 163
4.7. Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion*......Page 165
4.8. Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction*......Page 171
Glossary......Page 175
Chapter 5. Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity......Page 185
5.1. Friction*......Page 186
5.2. Drag Forces*......Page 191
5.3. Elasticity: Stress and Strain*......Page 196
Glossary......Page 204
Chapter 6. Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation......Page 211
6.1. Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity*......Page 212
6.2. Centripetal Acceleration*......Page 216
6.3. Centripetal Force*......Page 220
6.4. Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force*......Page 224
6.5. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation*......Page 227
6.6. Satellites and Kepler’s Laws: An Argument for Simplicity*......Page 234
Glossary......Page 239
Chapter 7. Work, Energy, and Energy Resources......Page 251
7.1. Work: The Scientific Definition*......Page 252
7.2. Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem*......Page 254
7.3. Gravitational Potential Energy*......Page 259
7.4. Conservative Forces and Potential Energy*......Page 264
7.5. Nonconservative Forces*......Page 267
7.6. Conservation of Energy*......Page 272
7.7. Power*......Page 276
7.8. Work, Energy, and Power in Humans*......Page 280
7.9. World Energy Use*......Page 282
Glossary......Page 285
Chapter 8. Linear Momentum and Collisions......Page 297
8.1. Linear Momentum and Force*......Page 298
8.2. Impulse*......Page 300
8.3. Conservation of Momentum*......Page 302
8.4. Elastic Collisions in One Dimension*......Page 306
8.5. Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension*......Page 308
8.6. Collisions of Point Masses in Two Dimensions*......Page 312
8.7. Introduction to Rocket Propulsion*......Page 315
Glossary......Page 318
Chapter 9. Statics and Torque......Page 327
9.1. The First Condition for Equilibrium*......Page 328
9.2. The Second Condition for Equilibrium*......Page 329
9.3. Stability*......Page 334
9.4. Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving Strategies*......Page 337
9.5. Simple Machines*......Page 340
9.6. Forces and Torques in Muscles and Joints*......Page 344
Glossary......Page 349
Chapter 10. Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum......Page 357
10.1. Angular Acceleration*......Page 358
10.2. Kinematics of Rotational Motion*......Page 362
10.3. Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia*......Page 367
10.4. Rotational Kinetic Energy: Work and Energy Revisited*......Page 371
10.5. Angular Momentum and Its Conservation*......Page 378
10.6. Collisions of Extended Bodies in Two Dimensions*......Page 384
10.7. Gyroscopic Effects: Vector Aspects of Angular Momentum*......Page 388
Glossary......Page 390
Chapter 11. Fluid Statics......Page 401
11.1. What Is a Fluid?*......Page 402
11.2. Density*......Page 403
11.3. Pressure*......Page 405
11.4. Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid*......Page 407
11.5. Pascal’s Principle*......Page 411
11.6. Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Pressure Measurement*......Page 413
11.7. Archimedes’ Principle*......Page 417
11.8. Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action*......Page 423
11.9. Pressures in the Body*......Page 432
Glossary......Page 436
Chapter 12. Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications......Page 447
12.1. Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity*......Page 448
12.2. Bernoulli’s Equation*......Page 451
12.3. The Most General Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation*......Page 455
12.4. Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law*......Page 458
12.5. The Onset of Turbulence*......Page 465
12.6. Motion of an Object in a Viscous Fluid*......Page 467
12.7. Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes*......Page 469
Glossary......Page 472
Chapter 13. Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws......Page 483
13.1. Temperature*......Page 484
13.2. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids*......Page 491
13.3. The Ideal Gas Law*......Page 497
13.4. Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature*......Page 503
13.5. Phase Changes*......Page 509
13.6. Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling*......Page 514
Glossary......Page 519
Chapter 14. Heat and Heat Transfer Methods......Page 529
14.1. Heat*......Page 530
14.2. Temperature Change and Heat Capacity*......Page 531
14.3. Phase Change and Latent Heat*......Page 537
14.4. Heat Transfer Methods*......Page 543
14.5. Conduction*......Page 544
14.6. Convection*......Page 548
14.7. Radiation*......Page 553
Glossary......Page 557
Chapter 15. Thermodynamics......Page 569
15.1. The First Law of Thermodynamics*......Page 570
15.2. The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes*......Page 575
15.3. Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Engines and Their Efficiency*......Page 582
15.4. Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated*......Page 588
15.5. Applications of Thermodynamics: Heat Pumps and Refrigerators*......Page 592
15.6. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy*......Page 597
15.7. Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Underlying Explanation*......Page 604
Glossary......Page 608
Chapter 16. Oscillatory Motion and Waves......Page 619
16.1. Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited*......Page 620
16.2. Period and Frequency in Oscillations*......Page 624
16.3. Simple Harmonic Motion: A Special Periodic Motion*......Page 625
16.4. The Simple Pendulum*......Page 630
16.5. Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator*......Page 632
16.6. Uniform Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion*......Page 634
16.7. Damped Harmonic Motion*......Page 637
16.8. Forced Oscillations and Resonance*......Page 641
16.9. Waves*......Page 643
16.10. Superposition and Interference*......Page 646
16.11. Energy in Waves: Intensity*......Page 651
Glossary......Page 653
Chapter 17. Physics of Hearing......Page 663
17.1. Sound*......Page 664
17.2. Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength*......Page 666
17.3. Sound Intensity and Sound Level*......Page 669
17.4. Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms*......Page 673
17.5. Sound Interference and Resonance: Standing Waves in Air Columns*......Page 678
17.6. Hearing*......Page 685
17.7. Ultrasound*......Page 690
Glossary......Page 697
Chapter 18. Electric Charge and Electric Field......Page 705
18.1. Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge*......Page 707
18.2. Conductors and Insulators*......Page 711
18.3. Coulomb’s Law*......Page 715
18.4. Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited*......Page 717
18.5. Electric Field Lines: Multiple Charges*......Page 719
18.6. Electric Forces in Biology*......Page 722
18.7. Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium*......Page 723
18.8. Applications of Electrostatics*......Page 727
Glossary......Page 732
Chapter 19. Electric Potential and Electric Field......Page 745
19.1. Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference*......Page 746
19.2. Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field*......Page 751
19.3. Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge*......Page 754
19.4. Equipotential Lines*......Page 756
19.5. Capacitors and Dielectrics*......Page 758
19.6. Capacitors in Series and Parallel*......Page 766
19.7. Energy Stored in Capacitors*......Page 769
Glossary......Page 771
Chapter 20. Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law......Page 779
20.1. Current*......Page 780
20.2. Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Simple Circuits*......Page 785
20.3. Resistance and Resistivity*......Page 787
20.4. Electric Power and Energy*......Page 793
20.5. Alternating Current versus Direct Current*......Page 795
20.6. Electric Hazards and the Human Body*......Page 799
20.7. Nerve Conduction–Electrocardiograms*......Page 804
Glossary......Page 809
Chapter 21. Circuits and DC Instruments......Page 819
21.1. Resistors in Series and Parallel*......Page 820
21.2. Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage*......Page 828
21.3. Kirchhoff’s Rules*......Page 836
21.4. DC Voltmeters and Ammeters*......Page 841
21.5. Null Measurements*......Page 844
21.6. DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors*......Page 847
Glossary......Page 852
Chapter 22. Magnetism......Page 865
22.1. Magnets*......Page 866
22.2. Ferromagnets and Electromagnets*......Page 868
22.3. Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines*......Page 872
22.4. Magnetic Field Strength: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field*......Page 873
22.5. Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications*......Page 875
22.6. The Hall Effect*......Page 880
22.7. Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor*......Page 882
22.8. Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters*......Page 884
22.9. Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents: Ampere’s Law*......Page 888
22.10. Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors*......Page 892
22.11. More Applications of Magnetism*......Page 893
Glossary......Page 896
Chapter 23. Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies......Page 911
23.1. Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux*......Page 912
23.2. Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law*......Page 915
23.3. Motional Emf*......Page 917
23.4. Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping*......Page 920
23.5. Electric Generators*......Page 923
23.6. Back Emf*......Page 927
23.7. Transformers*......Page 928
23.8. Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices*......Page 932
23.9. Inductance*......Page 936
23.10. RL Circuits*......Page 940
23.11. Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive*......Page 942
23.12. RLC Series AC Circuits*......Page 945
Glossary......Page 951
Chapter 24. Electromagnetic Waves......Page 965
24.1. Maxwell’s Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted and Observed*......Page 966
24.2. Production of Electromagnetic Waves*......Page 968
24.3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum*......Page 971
24.4. Energy in Electromagnetic Waves*......Page 984
Glossary......Page 986
Chapter 25. Geometric Optics......Page 995
25.1. The Ray Aspect of Light*......Page 996
25.2. The Law of Reflection*......Page 997
25.3. The Law of Refraction*......Page 999
25.4. Total Internal Reflection*......Page 1004
25.5. Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms*......Page 1009
25.6. Image Formation by Lenses*......Page 1014
25.7. Image Formation by Mirrors*......Page 1027
Glossary......Page 1034
Chapter 26. Vision and Optical Instruments......Page 1043
26.1. Physics of the Eye*......Page 1044
26.2. Vision Correction*......Page 1048
26.3. Color and Color Vision*......Page 1052
26.4. Microscopes*......Page 1054
26.5. Telescopes*......Page 1060
26.6. Aberrations*......Page 1063
Glossary......Page 1065
Chapter 27. Wave Optics......Page 1071
27.1. The Wave Aspect of Light: Interference*......Page 1072
27.2. Huygens's Principle: Diffraction*......Page 1073
27.3. Young’s Double Slit Experiment*......Page 1076
27.4. Multiple Slit Diffraction*......Page 1080
27.5. Single Slit Diffraction*......Page 1083
27.6. Limits of Resolution: The Rayleigh Criterion*......Page 1086
27.7. Thin Film Interference*......Page 1090
27.8. Polarization*......Page 1095
27.9. *Extended Topic* Microscopy Enhanced by the Wave Characteristics of Light*......Page 1103
Glossary......Page 1106
Chapter 28. Special Relativity......Page 1117
28.1. Einstein’s Postulates*......Page 1118
28.2. Simultaneity And Time Dilation*......Page 1120
28.3. Length Contraction*......Page 1126
28.4. Relativistic Addition of Velocities*......Page 1130
28.5. Relativistic Momentum*......Page 1136
28.6. Relativistic Energy*......Page 1137
Glossary......Page 1145
Chapter 29. Introduction to Quantum Physics......Page 1155
29.1. Quantization of Energy*......Page 1156
29.2. The Photoelectric Effect*......Page 1159
29.3. Photon Energies and the Electromagnetic Spectrum*......Page 1162
29.4. Photon Momentum*......Page 1168
29.5. The Particle-Wave Duality*......Page 1171
29.6. The Wave Nature of Matter*......Page 1172
29.7. Probability: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle*......Page 1176
29.8. The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed*......Page 1181
Glossary......Page 1183
Chapter 30. Atomic Physics......Page 1191
30.1. Discovery of the Atom*......Page 1192
30.2. Discovery of the Parts of the Atom: Electrons and Nuclei*......Page 1193
30.3. Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom*......Page 1200
30.4. X Rays: Atomic Origins and Applications*......Page 1207
30.5. Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations*......Page 1212
30.6. The Wave Nature of Matter Causes Quantization*......Page 1220
30.7. Patterns in Spectra Reveal More Quantization*......Page 1223
30.8. Quantum Numbers and Rules*......Page 1225
30.9. The Pauli Exclusion Principle*......Page 1230
Glossary......Page 1235
Chapter 31. Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics......Page 1247
31.1. Nuclear Radioactivity*......Page 1248
31.2. Radiation Detection and Detectors*......Page 1252
31.3. Substructure of the Nucleus*......Page 1255
31.4. Nuclear Decay and Conservation Laws*......Page 1259
31.5. Half-Life and Activity*......Page 1266
31.6. Binding Energy*......Page 1272
31.7. Tunneling*......Page 1276
Glossary......Page 1278
Chapter 32. Medical Applications of Nuclear Physics......Page 1289
32.1. Medical Imaging and Diagnostics*......Page 1290
32.2. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation*......Page 1294
32.3. Therapeutic Uses of Ionizing Radiation*......Page 1300
32.4. Food Irradiation*......Page 1302
32.5. Fusion*......Page 1303
32.6. Fission*......Page 1309
32.7. Nuclear Weapons*......Page 1314
Glossary......Page 1318
Chapter 33. Particle Physics......Page 1329
33.1. The Yukawa Particle and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Revisited*......Page 1330
33.2. The Four Basic Forces*......Page 1332
33.3. Accelerators Create Matter from Energy*......Page 1334
33.4. Particles, Patterns, and Conservation Laws*......Page 1337
33.5. Quarks: Is That All There Is?*......Page 1343
33.6. GUTs: The Unification of Forces*......Page 1350
Glossary......Page 1354
Chapter 34. Frontiers of Physics......Page 1363
34.1. Cosmology and Particle Physics*......Page 1364
34.2. General Relativity and Quantum Gravity*......Page 1371
34.3. Superstrings*......Page 1376
34.4. Dark Matter and Closure*......Page 1377
34.5. Complexity and Chaos*......Page 1381
34.6. High-temperature Superconductors*......Page 1382
34.7. Some Questions We Know to Ask*......Page 1384
Glossary......Page 1385
Appendix A. Atomic Masses*......Page 1393
Appendix B. Selected Radioactive Isotopes*......Page 1399
Appendix C. Useful Information*......Page 1403
Appendix D. Glossary of Key Symbols and Notation*......Page 1407
Index......Page 1419
College Physics.pdf......Page 0
Blank Page......Page 2