Cognizance of Schizophrenia:: A Profound Insight into the Psyche

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Understanding Schizophrenia: Introductory Aspect of the Mental Disorder from Various Perspectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Symptoms of Schizophrenia
1.2.1 Positive Symptoms
1.2.2 Negative Symptoms
1.2.3 Mixed and Cognitive Symptoms
1.3 Causes and Diagnosis of Schizophrenia
1.4 Perceptions on Schizophrenia
1.4.1 Negative Perceptions of Schizophrenia
1.4.2 Perceptions of Schizophrenia in Later Life
1.4.3 Psychodynamic Perspectives of Schizophrenia
1.4.4 Cognitive Perspective of Schizophrenia
1.4.5 Humanistic Perspectives of Schizophrenia
1.4.6 Sociocultural Perspective of Schizophrenia
1.4.7 Cross-Cultural Perspectives and Influences of Culture on Schizophrenia
1.4.8 Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective Schizophrenia
1.5 Recent Advancement in Schizophrenia
1.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Genetic Mutations and Alternative Splicing in Schizophrenia
2.1 What Is Neurogenetics? Related Disease and Disorder
2.1.1 Neurogenetic Diseases
2.1.2 Neurogenetic Disorders
2.2 Schizophrenia and Genetics
2.2.1 Schizophrenia
2.2.2 Genetics
2.3 Genetic Mutations and How They Are Responsible to Cause Schizophrenia
2.4 RNA Splicing and Miss-Splicing (Introduction)
2.5 Genes Involved in RNA Miss-Splicing to Increase Schizophrenia Risk
2.6 How RNA Miss-Splicing (Alternative Splicing) Related to Schizophrenia?
2.7 Treatment
2.7.1 Medication
2.7.2 Psychological
2.8 Future Goal and Discussion
References
Chapter 3: Understanding the Chemical Interactions in the Brain of Schizophrenia Patients
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Brain: Its Parts
3.2.1 Hindbrain
3.2.2 Midbrain
3.2.3 Forebrain
3.3 Schizophrenia: Its Neurochemistry
3.3.1 Dopamine and Schizophrenia
3.3.2 Serotonin and Schizophrenia
3.3.3 Glutamate and Schizophrenia
3.3.4 GABA and Schizophrenia
3.3.5 Other Neurotransmitters and Schizophrenia
3.4 Neuroanatomical Changes During Schizophrenia
3.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: A Diagnostic Perspective of Schizophrenia: From Past to Present
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Clinical Manifestations
4.2.1 Positive
4.2.2 Negative
4.2.3 Cognitive
4.3 Rationale
4.4 Diagnosis
4.5 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) for Schizophrenia
4.6 Molecular Pathology of Schizophrenia
4.7 Neuroimaging in Schizophrenia: Advancement in Technique
4.8 Computed Tomography (CT Scan)Analysis
4.8.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
4.9 Psychometric Analysis
4.9.1 Cognitive Analysis
4.9.2 Clinical Observations and Analysis
4.10 Psychological
4.10.1 Stressors Presence
4.10.2 Presence of External Stress
4.10.3 Presence of Internal Stress
4.10.4 Stressors Appraisal
4.10.5 External Stress Appraisal
4.10.6 Internal Stress Appraisal
4.10.7 Impairment of Cognitive Processes and Cognitive Biases
4.10.8 Reasons and Problem-Solving of Biases
4.10.9 Related to Memory and Memory Retrieval Deficiencies
4.11 Questionnaire
4.11.1 Positive and Negative Symptoms Questionnaire
4.12 Conclusion and Scope of Future Work
References
Chapter 5: Is It Schizophrenia or Not? Different Biological Characterization
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Schizophrenia
5.3 Alzheimer´s Disease
5.4 Parkinson Disease (PD)
5.5 Chronic Depression (CD)
5.6 Bi-Polar Disorder
5.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Neurobiological Aspects of Schizophrenia and Relationship Between Neurological Disorders: Depression, Anxiety, and ...
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Neurobiology of a Brain and How Brain Works
6.2.1 Brain
6.2.2 What Is Neurobiology?
6.2.3 Nervous System
6.2.3.1 Gray Matter and White Matter
6.2.4 Brain and Functions
6.2.4.1 Cerebrum
6.2.4.2 Brain Stem
6.2.4.3 Cerebellum
6.3 What Is Schizophrenia and How It Changes the Structural Integrity of the Brain?
6.3.1 Schizophrenia
6.3.1.1 Symptoms
6.3.1.2 Reasons for Schizophrenia
6.3.2 Changes the Structure Integrity of the Brain
6.4 How Schizophrenia Brain Acts as Disorder Neurobiologically
6.4.1 Neurobiology of Schizophrenia Brain
6.5 What Depression and Anxiety Affect Neurobiologically
6.5.1 Depression and Anxiety
6.5.1.1 Depression
6.5.1.2 Anxiety Disorder
6.6 How Epilepsy and Schizophrenia Connected Depression and Anxiety Disorder
6.6.1 Epilepsy
6.6.2 Anxiety Disorder and Depression and Epilepsy
References
Chapter 7: Clinical Treatment Available for Schizophrenia
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Assessment and Evaluation
7.3 Decision Regarding Treatment Setting
7.4 Phases of Treatment
7.4.1 Acute Phase of Treatment
7.4.2 Continuation Phase of Treatment
7.4.3 Maintenance Phase of Treatment
7.5 Options Available for Treatment
7.5.1 Pharmacological Management
7.5.1.1 Chemical Classification of Antipsychotic
7.5.1.2 Generation and Mechanism-Wise Classification of Antipsychotic
7.5.1.3 First-Generation Antipsychotics (FGAs) Mechanism of Action
7.5.1.4 Second-Generation Antipsychotics (SGAs) Mechanism of Action
7.5.1.5 Nobel Antipsychotic
7.5.1.6 Receptor Interactions of Antipsychotics (Stahl 2021)
7.5.1.6.1 Effect on Other Receptors of Antipsychotics
7.5.1.6.2 Effect on Other Systems of Antipsychotics
7.5.1.6.3 Other Side Effects
7.5.1.6.4 Interactions
7.5.1.7 Side Effects of Antipsychotics at a Glance
7.5.1.7.1 Tardive Dyskinesia (TD)
7.5.1.7.2 Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS)
7.5.1.8 Management of NMS
7.5.1.9 How to Select Antipsychotics
7.5.1.10 Selection of Route of Administration
7.5.1.11 Long-Acting/Depot Injections Preparations
7.5.1.12 Adjunctive Medications Along with Antipsychotics
7.5.2 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
7.5.2.1 Mechanism of Action of ECT
7.5.2.2 Indications for ECT
7.5.2.3 Number of Sessions for ECT
7.5.2.4 Contraindications of ECT
7.5.2.5 Relative Contraindications of ECT
7.5.3 Psychological Management (Kreyenbuhl et al. 2010)
7.5.3.1 Psychoeducation for Patients and Caregivers
7.5.3.2 Family Intervention (Grover et al. 2017)
7.5.3.2.1 Components of Family Intervention
7.5.3.2.2 Advantages of Family Intervention
7.5.3.3 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
7.5.3.3.1 Components of CBT
7.5.3.3.2 Steps of CBT
7.5.3.4 Social Skill Training
7.5.3.4.1 Components of Social Skill Training
7.5.3.4.2 Seven Blocks of Social Skill Training
7.5.3.4.3 Commonly Used Methods
7.5.3.5 Assertive Community Treatment
7.5.3.5.1 Elements of Assertive Community Treatment
7.5.3.5.2 Outcome of Assertive Community Treatment
7.5.3.6 Token Economy
7.5.3.6.1 Advantages of Token Economy
7.5.3.7 Vocational Rehabilitation
7.5.3.7.1 Advantages of Vocational Rehabilitation
7.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Insights into the Neuro-Pharmacological Treatment of Schizophrenia: Past, Present, and Future
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Definition of Schizophrenia
8.2 Development of Schizophrenia
8.3 Cause of Schizophrenia
8.4 Onset of Schizophrenia and Related Symptoms
8.5 Treatments for Schizophrenia
8.6 Neuropharmacological Treatments for Schizophrenia
8.6.1 Historical Evolution
8.6.2 Antipsychotic Drugs (Neuroleptics)
8.7 Mechanism of Action of Neuroleptics (Central Nervous System)
8.7.1 Drawbacks of Traditional Neuroleptics
8.8 Cutting-Edge Alternatives
8.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Managing Schizophrenia: A Challenge for Physicians
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pathomechanisms of Schizophrenia
9.2.1 Dopaminergic Hypothesis
9.2.2 Glutamatergic Hypothesis
9.2.3 Other Aminergic Receptors
9.2.4 GABAergic Hypothesis
9.2.5 Other Hypotheses
9.3 Clinical Management of Schizophrenia
9.3.1 Pharmacotherapy
9.3.1.1 First-Generation Antipsychotics (FGAs)
Mechanism of Action
Adverse Effects Profile
Chlorpromazine Equivalent Dose
9.3.1.2 Second-Generation Antipsychotics (SGAs)
Mechanism of Action
Clozapine: The Most Atypical Antipsychotic
9.3.1.3 Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia
Risperidone
Adverse Effects Profile
9.3.1.4 Third-Generation Antipsychotics
Mechanism of Action
Adverse Effects Profile
9.3.2 Non-pharmacotherapy
9.3.2.1 Psychotherapy
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
9.3.2.2 Electroconvulsive Therapy
9.3.2.3 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Therapy
9.4 Augmentation Strategies
9.5 Phase-Wise Management of Schizophrenia
9.5.1 Management of First-Episode Psychosis
9.5.1.1 Psychotherapy
9.5.1.2 Pharmacotherapy
9.5.2 Management of Acute Phase
9.6 Maintenance Phase of Schizophrenia
9.7 Dosing Regimens for Antipsychotics
9.8 Antipsychotics in Pregnancy
9.9 Antipsychotic Withdrawal
9.9.1 Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS)
9.10 Future Research Recommendations
References
Chapter 10: Pharmacotherapy and Emerging Treatment Strategies for Schizophrenia
10.1 Introduction
10.2 First-Generation Antipsychotics (FGAs)
10.2.1 Examples of the First-Generation Antipsychotics
10.3 Second-Generation Antipsychotics
10.3.1 Clozapine
10.3.2 Olanzapine
10.3.3 Risperidone
10.3.4 Paliperidone
10.3.5 Ziprasidone
10.3.6 Quetiapine
10.3.7 Aripiprazole
10.4 Other Drugs for Treatment and Management of ScZ
10.4.1 Brexpiprazole
10.4.2 Cariprazine
10.4.3 Lumateperone
10.5 Polypharmacy
10.5.1 Reasons for Antipsychotic Polypharmacy
10.5.2 Risk Associated with Antipsychotic Polypharmacy
10.6 Emergence of Serotonergic Agents for ScZ Treatment
10.6.1 Pimavanserin
10.6.2 Vabicaserin
10.6.3 Ondansetron, Tropisetron, and Granisetron
10.6.4 Tropisetron
10.6.5 Selective 5-HT6R Antagonists
10.7 Emerging Strategies to Treat ScZ
10.7.1 Melatonin
10.7.2 Cannabidiol
10.7.3 Omega-3 Fatty Acids
10.7.4 Vitamins for the Management of ScZ
10.7.5 Curcumin
10.7.6 Spinacia Oleracea
10.7.7 Embelin
10.7.8 Emodin
10.7.9 Stigmasterol
10.8 Conclusion and Future Challenges
References
Chapter 11: Alternative Therapies Used in Schizophrenia
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 History of Previous and Conventional Therapy for Schizophrenia Psychiatric Disorder
11.1.2 Alternative and Complementary Therapies to Schizophrenia
11.1.2.1 Examples of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Therapy for Schizophrenia
11.1.2.1.1 Complementary Dietary Plan and Use of Herbs
11.1.2.1.2 Ginkgo-Ginkgo Biloba
11.1.2.1.3 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
11.1.2.1.4 Yoga and Physical Activities Treatment
11.1.2.1.5 Integrative Psychiatry
11.1.2.1.6 Music Therapy
11.1.2.1.7 Multivitamins and Supplements
11.1.2.1.8 Glycine
11.1.2.1.9 Mental Improvement Treatment (MIT)
11.1.2.1.10 Composed Specialty Care (CSC)
11.1.2.1.11 Family Interventions
11.1.2.1.12 Vocational and Social Skill
11.1.2.1.13 Electroconvulsive Treatment (ECT)
11.1.2.1.14 Psychosocial Treatments
11.1.2.1.15 Antipsychotic Medications
11.1.2.1.16 Acupuncture
11.1.2.1.17 Religious Beliefs and Conviction
11.2 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Different Phases of Schizophrenia Patients: From the Psychological Perspective
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 History of Schizophrenia as a Psychiatric Disorder
12.1.2 Epidemiology
12.1.3 Neuropathology and Psychopathology
12.1.4 Genetics and Environmental (Pre- and Perinatal) Influences in Etiology
12.1.5 Cognitive Functioning, and Course and Outcome
12.2 Clinical Staging Concepts of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder
12.2.1 Staging Concept in Medicine
12.2.2 Staging Concept in Psychiatric Disorder
12.2.3 Different Staging Concepts in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder
12.2.3.1 Staging Concept of Lieberman and Insel
12.2.3.2 The Singh Staging Concept
12.2.3.3 The Aguis Staging Concept
12.2.3.4 The Mcgorry Staging Concept
12.2.3.5 The Cosci Staging Concept
12.2.3.6 The Fountoulakis Staging Concept
12.3 Integrated Staging Model of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder
12.3.1 Stage 0 (The Prodrome Phase)
12.3.2 Stage 1 (Acute Manifestation of Psychotic Symptoms)
12.3.3 Stage 2 (Remission and Relapse)
12.3.4 Stage 3 (Chronic Psychosis)
12.4 Therapeutic Implications of Staging in Schizophrenia
12.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Stigmatizing Attitudes Toward Patients with Schizophrenia Among Medical Professionals and General Population
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Methods
13.3 Results
13.4 Discussion
13.5 Conclusion and Implication
References
Chapter 14: Rehabilitation of Schizophrenia: Practical Interventions
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Rehabilitation of Schizophrenia
14.3 Community-Based Rehabilitation
14.3.1 Why CBR Is Required
14.3.2 Goals of Rehabilitation
14.4 Need of CBR for Person with Schizophrenia
14.5 Domains of CBR
14.6 Management and Support
14.7 Review of Literature
14.8 Methodology
14.9 Sample
14.10 Conduction
14.11 Interventions Given Over a Period of 12 Months
14.11.1 Social Skill Training
14.11.2 Psychoeducation
14.11.3 CBT
14.11.4 Cognitive Remediation
14.11.5 Meta-Analyses of Published Data
14.12 Results and Discussion
14.12.1 Social Skill Training
14.12.2 Psychoeducation
14.12.3 CBT
14.12.4 Cognitive Remediation
14.13 Meta-Analyses of Previously Published Studies on Rehabilitation of Schizophrenia (Table 14.2)
14.14 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Consumption of Cannabis: A Risk Factor or a Therapeutic Agent for Patients with Schizophrenia
15.1 Schizophrenia
15.1.1 Introduction
15.1.2 Course of the Disease
15.2 Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
15.3 Cannabis
15.3.1 Introduction
15.3.2 Risks of Smoking Cannabis
15.4 Association of Cannabis with Schizophrenia
15.4.1 Background of Cannabis-Associated Psychosis
15.4.2 Use of Cannabis and Psychosis
15.5 Mechanism of Action of Cannabis
15.6 Cannabinoids and Nervous System Tissues
15.6.1 Receptors on Central and Peripheral Tissues
15.6.2 Oxidative Stress and Advanced Glycation (AGEs) Levels
15.7 Theories Related to the Link Between Schizophrenia and Cannabis Use
15.8 Factors Affecting the Association of Cannabis and Schizophrenia
15.8.1 Dose
15.8.2 Age of Onset
15.8.3 Sex (Gender)
15.8.4 Genetic Predisposition
15.8.5 Environmental Risk
15.8.6 Comorbid Substance Use
15.9 Cannabis-Induced Psychosis and Schizophrenia
15.9.1 Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder
15.9.2 Conversion of Cannabis-Induced Psychosis to Schizophrenia
15.9.3 Cannabis-Induced Psychosis and Genetics
15.10 Effects of Cannabis on Brain Function
15.10.1 Endocannabinoid System
15.10.2 CB1 Receptor in the Brain
15.10.3 Chronic Cannabis Use and Brain Changes
15.10.4 Acute Cannabis Consumption and Brain Changes
15.10.5 Genetic Risk in Adolescence
15.10.6 THC Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol
15.10.7 Changes in Corpus Callosum
15.10.8 Electroencephalography (EEG) Studies
15.11 Cannabis Comparison with Other Drugs
15.11.1 Cannabis and Alcohol
15.11.2 Cannabis and Tobacco
15.12 Cannabis Consumption, Adolescence, and Schizophrenia
15.13 Outcome in Patients with SZ Smoking Cannabis
15.13.1 Prognosis
15.13.2 Adverse Effects and Cognitive Performance
15.14 Cannabis as Therapeutic Agent
15.14.1 Cannabidiol for SZ Patients
15.14.2 Reduction in Symptoms of SZ
15.14.3 THC Content in Cannabis
15.14.4 Cognitive Performance
15.14.5 Adherence to Medication and Smoking Cannabis
15.15 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Medical Imaging and Schizophrenia: A Study on State-of-Art Applications
16.1 Medical Imaging System
16.2 Types of Medical Imaging Techniques
16.3 Schizophrenia and Medical Imaging
16.4 Types of Neuroimaging
16.5 Machine Learning and Deep Learning Techniques
16.6 Scope of Future Work
16.7 Challenges of Neuroimaging
16.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Schizophrenia and Its Effect on Marital Satisfaction
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Marital Satisfaction
17.3 Schizophrenia and Marriage
17.4 Schizophrenia and Intimacy
17.5 Schizophrenia and Passion
17.6 Schizophrenia and Commitment
17.6.1 Schizophrenic and the Relationship with Their Spouse
17.6.2 Everyday Life with a Spouse with Schizophrenia
17.6.3 Schizophrenics and Their Relationship with Their Children or Offsprings
17.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Mortality Rate in Schizophrenia
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Historical Development in Schizophrenia
18.3 Prevalence
18.4 Mortality in Schizophrenia
18.4.1 How to Measure Mortality in Schizophrenia?
18.4.2 Why Excess Mortality in Schizophrenia
18.5 Health Care and Physical Fitness
18.6 Antipsychotic Medicine Side Effects
18.7 Lifestyle Risk Factors
18.8 Future Initiatives
18.9 Conclusion
References