Clean Coal Technologies: Beneficiation, Utilization, Transport Phenomena and Prospective

Preface
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Mineral Beneficiation and Processing of Coal
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Coal Characterization
1.2.1 Classification of Coal
1.2.2 Petrographic Components of Coal
1.2.3 Coal Washability Studies
1.3 Coal Preparation
1.3.1 Sizing Devices
1.3.1.1 Grizzly Feeder
1.3.1.2 Vibrating Screens
1.3.1.3 Sieve Bend
1.3.1.4 Classifying Cyclone
1.3.2 Washing/Cleaning Devices
1.3.2.1 Drum Separators
1.3.2.2 Jigs
1.3.2.3 Dense Media Cyclone (DMC)
1.3.2.4 Spiral Concentrators
1.3.2.5 Shaking Tables
1.3.2.6 Teeter-Bed Separators (TBS)
1.3.2.7 Water-Only Cyclone (WOC)
1.3.2.8 Froth Flotation
1.3.3 Dewatering Devices
1.3.3.1 High-Frequency Screens
1.3.3.2 Centrifuge
1.3.3.3 Thickener
1.3.3.4 Filter
1.4 Plant Practices
1.4.1 Typical Coking Coal Washery Circuit
1.4.2 Typical Non-coking Coal Washery Circuit
1.4.3 Modular Plants
1.5 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 2: Natural Dispersant in Coal Water Slurry Stabilization
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Brief History of Coal
2.3 Classification of Coal
2.4 Background of Coal Water Slurry
2.5 Viscosity Measurement of CWS
2.6 Isolation and Characterization of Natural Dispersant
2.6.1 Isolation of Natural Dispersant: (Chemical and Aqueous Extraction Process)
2.6.2 Surface Activity of Natural Dispersant by Fluorimeter
2.6.3 Surface Activity of Natural Dispersant by Surface Tension Measurement
2.7 Application of Natural Dispersant in Coal Water Slurry Stabilization
2.7.1 Effect of Coal Concentration on Apparent Viscosity of CWS
2.7.2 Effect of Dispersant Concentration on Apparent Viscosity of CWS
2.7.3 Change of Shear Stress with Shear Rate
2.7.4 Effect of Temperature
2.7.5 pH and Surface Charge of Coal
2.8 Mechanism of Stabilization
2.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Application of Biotechnological Approach for Making Coal an Environmentally Friendly Fuel
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Coal Structure and Availability in Nature
3.3 Coal Stock and Production
3.4 Mechanism of Inorganic Sulphur Removal by Microbes
3.4.1 Contact Mechanism
3.4.2 Non-contact Mechanism
3.5 Microbes Take Part in Inorganic Sulphur Removal
3.6 Microbes Involved in Organic Sulphur Removal and Mechanism
3.7 Current Scenario of Sulphur Removal from Coal by Microbes
3.8 Drawbacks and Future Prospective
3.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Oil Agglomeration Towards Quality Enhancement of High-Ash Coals: The Indian Scenario
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Coarse Coal Cleaning
4.3 Fine Coal Cleaning
4.4 Key Factors Influencing Oil Agglomeration
4.4.1 Coal Rank
4.4.2 Surface Chemistry of Coal Particles
4.4.3 Coal Particle Size
4.4.4 Bridging Liquid Nature and Concentration
4.4.5 Pulp Density
4.4.6 Pulp pH
4.4.7 Ionic Strength
4.4.8 Agitation Conditions
4.5 Current Scenarios for Oil Agglomeration of High-Ash Indian Coals
4.6 Economic Benefits of Coal Beneficiation in India
4.6.1 Benefits to Plant Operations
4.6.2 Benefits to Transportation of High-Ash Coals
4.7 Future Prospects
4.8 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 5: Preparation of Coal-Derived Activated Carbon and Its Application for Adsorption of Metals from Aqueous Solutions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Physicochemical Properties of Activated Carbon
5.2.1 Crystalline Structure of Activated Carbon
5.2.2 Pore Structure of Activated Carbon
5.2.3 Chemical Composition of Activated Carbon
5.3 Types and Properties of Coals as the Precursor for Activated Carbon
5.4 Preparation of Coal-Derived Activated Carbon
5.4.1 Physical Preparation
5.4.1.1 Carbonization
5.4.1.2 Activation
5.4.2 Chemical Preparation
5.4.3 Effects of Carbonization-Activation Parameters on the Pore Development of Coal-Derived Activated Carbon
5.4.3.1 Effect of Pretreatment of the Coals
5.4.3.2 Effect of Coal Types
5.4.3.3 Effect of Activating Agents
5.4.4 Effects of Thermal Treatment Parameters
5.4.5 Kinetic Aspect
5.4.5.1 Kinetic Models of Carbonization
5.4.5.2 Kinetic Models of Activation
5.5 Application of Activated Carbon for Adsorption of Metals in Aqueous Solutions
5.5.1 Recovery of Gold and Silver from Cyanide Solution
5.5.2 Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater
5.5.3 Recovery/Separation of Leached Metals from Leaching Solutions
5.6 Future Direction
5.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Characteristic and Equilibrium Adsorption Studies of Biochar
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Preparation of CABC from CAW
6.3 Adsorption Studies
6.4 Adsorption Isotherms Models
6.4.1 Freundlich Isotherm Model
6.4.2 Temkin Isotherm Model
6.4.3 Dubinin-Radushkevich Isotherm Model
6.5 Adsorption Kinetic Studies
6.5.1 PSOM I and PSOM-II
6.6 Elovich Model (EM)
6.7 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis
6.8 Effect of Initial Concentration and Contact Time
6.9 Effect of pH
6.10 Effect of Adsorbent Dosage
6.11 Adsorption Isotherms
6.12 Adsorption Kinetics
6.13 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Bio-Desulfurization of Coal Using Biotechnological Approach, Making Coal a Less Harmful Fuel
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Sulfur Contained in Coal: Need for Desulfurization
7.2 Process for Desulfurization
7.2.1 Physical Methods of Desulfurization
7.2.2 Chemical Methods of Desulfurization
7.2.3 Oxidative Desulfurization (ODS)
7.2.4 Hydro-Desulfurization (HDS)
7.2.5 Biological Method of Desulfurization
7.3 Bio-Desulfurization
7.3.1 Microorganisms Used for Bio-Desulfurization of Coal
7.3.2 Mechanism of Pyrite Microbial Desulfurization
7.3.3 Metabolic Pathways of Desulfurization of Coal
7.3.4 Biotechnological Approaches towards Bio-Desulfurization of Coal
7.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Environmental Benign Biochar Technologies: Strategic Utilization for CO2 Capture and Wastewater Treatment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Biomass Feedstocks
8.3 Pretreatment Processes
8.4 Biochar Production Processes
8.4.1 Pyrolysis
8.4.2 Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC)
8.5 Posttreatment Processes
8.6 Biochar as an Adsorbent
8.6.1 CO2 Capture
8.6.2 Heavy Metals
8.6.2.1 pH and Electric Charge
8.6.2.2 Surface Functional Groups
8.6.2.3 Biochar Modification
8.6.3 Anions
8.6.3.1 Phosphorus
8.6.3.2 Nitrogen
8.6.3.3 Arsenic
8.6.3.4 Chromium
8.6.3.5 Other Metallic Anions
8.7 Summary and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 9: Role of Nanomaterials: Enhancing the Adsorption Efficiency of Activated Carbon in Wastewater Treatment
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Importance of Activated Carbon
9.1.2 Different Treatment Methods
9.1.3 Efficient Removal of Inorganic Contaminants by Activated Charcoal
9.1.4 Efficient Removal of Organic Contaminants by AC
9.2 Nanomaterials as Adsorbents: Introduction
9.2.1 Use of Nanomaterial Encapsulated Activated Carbon for the Removal of Inorganic Pollutants
9.2.2 Use of Nanomaterial Encapsulated Activated Carbon for the Removal of Organic Pollutants
9.2.3 Challenges and Future Perspectives
9.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Adsorption of Metals Using Activated Carbon Derived from Coal
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Need for Adsorption of Metals from Wastewater
10.2.1 Characteristics of Adsorbent Materials
10.2.2 Mechanism of Adsorption
10.3 Synthesis of Activated Carbon from Coal
10.3.1 Chemical Activation Method
10.3.2 Physical Activation Method
10.3.3 Physicochemical Activation Method
10.4 Adsorption of Metals Using Coal-Derived Activated Carbon
10.4.1 Mercury Adsorption
10.4.2 Cadmium Adsorption
10.4.3 Chromium Adsorption
10.4.4 Lead Adsorption
10.4.5 Arsenic Adsorption
10.4.6 Copper Adsorption
10.5 Comparison of Adsorption of Metals Using Coal-Derived Activated Carbon with that Derived from Other Materials
10.5.1 Performance Point of View
10.5.2 Economic Point of View
10.6 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Generation, Transportation and Utilization of Indian Coal Ash
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Generation of Fly Ash in India
11.3 Types of Fly Ash
11.4 Rheological Model
11.4.1 Stabilization of Fly Ash Slurry (FAS) by Using Surfactant
11.4.2 Addition of Bottom Ash as Additive
11.4.3 Mechanism of Stabilization
11.5 Clay Brick (CB) to Fly Ash Brick (FAB)
11.5.1 Fabrication Techniques of FAB
11.5.2 Mixing and Grinding of Raw Materials
11.5.2.1 Pressing
11.5.2.2 Removal and Stacking
11.5.2.3 Autoclaving
11.6 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Studies on Extraction of Heavy Metal (s) from Fly Ash through Hydroprocessing Approach
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of Coal Fly Ash
12.3 Leaching Studies of Coal Fly Ash (CFA)
12.3.1 The Removal of Toxic Elements
12.3.1.1 Arsenic
12.3.1.2 Chromium
12.3.1.3 Mercury
12.3.1.4 Cadmium and Lead
12.3.2 Extraction of Valuable Metals
12.3.2.1 Selenium
12.3.2.2 Manganese
12.3.2.3 Nickel
12.3.2.4 Cobalt
12.3.2.5 Zinc
12.3.2.6 Copper
12.3.3 Proper Disposal of FA into the Environment
12.4 Current Research on Metal Extraction Status from Fly Ash
12.5 Summary and Futuristic Prospective
References
Chapter 13: Investigation on Extraction and Recovery of Rare Earth Elements from Coal Combustion Products
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
13.2.1 Worldwide Rare Earth Resources
13.2.2 Rare Earths Global Reserve and Production
13.3 Hydrometallurgical Techniques Role on Metals Recovery
13.4 Coal Combustion Products (CCPs)
13.4.1 Coal Combustion Products Resources
13.4.2 Physical and Engineering Properties of the Main CCPs
13.4.3 Chemical Transformation
13.4.4 Coal Combustion Products Generation Global Wide
13.5 Environmental Concerns Related to CCPs
13.5.1 Air Emissions
13.5.2 Water Contamination
13.5.3 Climate Change Issues by Coal Ash Pollution
13.6 Rare Earths Recovery from Coal Ash
13.6.1 Roasting Treatment
13.6.2 Alkaline and Acid Leaching
13.6.3 Bioleaching
13.6.4 Ionic Liquids
13.6.5 Physical Separation Processes
13.6.6 Other Methods
13.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 14: Recovery of Rare Earth and Some Other Potential Elements from Coal Fly Ash for Sustainable Future
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Rare Earth Elements
14.2.1 Recovery of REE Via REE Beneficiation Using Physical Separation Techniques
14.2.2 Recovery of REE Using Direct Acid and Alkali Leaching
14.2.3 Recovery of REE Via Chemical Pre-Treatment of CFA
14.2.4 Biological Methods for REE Recovery from CFA
14.2.5 Methods for REE Separation from CFA Leachate Solutions
14.3 Aluminum
14.3.1 Direct Acid and Alkali Leaching of Al from Fly Ash
14.3.2 Recovery of Al Using CFA Pre-Treatment and Recovery Processes
14.3.3 Selective Recovery of Aluminum from CFA Pregnant Leach Solutions
14.4 Selenium
14.5 Gallium and Germanium
14.6 Vanadium
14.7 Lithium
14.8 Magnesium and Calcium
14.9 Titanium and Molybdenum
14.10 Radioactive Elements
14.11 Precious Metals
14.12 Economic Considerations
14.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Coal Fly Ash Utilisation and Environmental Impact
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Case Study: CFA Generation in Bangladesh
15.2.1 Ash Production per Year from Coal-Fired Power Plants in Bangladesh
15.2.2 Ash Handling and Disposal Methods
15.2.3 Distribution of Value of Ash in Different Methods
15.3 Coal Ash Uses in India
15.4 Potential Metal Value Contained in Coal Fly Ash
15.5 Environmental Aspects of Coal Ash—CO2 Emission Reduction Potential
15.5.1 Cement with Fly Ash
15.5.2 Fly Ash Brick
15.5.3 Fly Ash in Concrete
15.5.4 Radiation Impact of Fly Ash Product
15.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Utilization of Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Fly Ash for Simultaneous Recovery of Rare Earth Elements and CO2 Capture
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 The Rare Earths
16.1.2 Rare Earths Go Critical
16.2 The Sources of Rare Earths
16.2.1 Conventional Sources for Rare Earths
16.2.2 Alternative Sources for Rare Earths
16.3 The Occurrence of Rare Earths in CFA
16.3.1 The Abundance of Rare Earths in CFA
16.3.2 The Mode of Occurrence of REE in the CFA
16.4 Rare Earths Recovery from Coal Fly Ash and CO2 Capture
16.4.1 Beneficiation of Rare Earths
16.4.2 Chemical Extraction of Rare Earths
16.4.2.1 Acidic Leaching
16.4.2.2 Alkaline Activated-Acidic Leaching
Alkaline Roasting-Acid Leaching
Alkaline Leaching-Acid Leaching
16.4.3 CO2 Capture and Chemical Regeneration via Integration of Carbon Mineralization
16.4.4 Separation and Purification of Rare Earths
16.5 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 17: Developments in Characterization and Mineral Processing of Coal Fly Ash for Recovery of Rare Earth Elements
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Technospheric Resources of Rare Earths
17.3 Rare Earths in Coal Fly Ash (CFA)
17.4 Recovery of Rare Earths from CFA
17.4.1 Physical Beneficiation
17.4.2 Leaching of REEs from CFA
17.4.3 Separation and Purification of REEs from Leachates of CFA
17.4.3.1 Solvent Extraction
17.4.3.2 Ionic Liquids
17.4.3.3 Membranes-Based Separation
17.4.3.4 Adsorption Methods
17.4.4 Precipitation of REEs from Leachates of CFA
17.5 Flowsheet for Recovery of REE from CFA
17.6 Pozzolanic Behaviour of Post-Leached CFA
17.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Coal Burn Ash: A Sustainable Future Resource for Critical Metals Production
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Analytical Studies of Coal and Coal Combustion Products
18.1.2 Beneficiation of Coal and its by-Products to Get REMs Enriched Concentrate
18.1.3 Pretreatment of Coal and its Combustion Products to Improve REMs Leachability
18.1.4 Acid Leaching of Coal and its Combustion Products to Extract REMs
18.2 Characterization and Distribution of REMs in Coal/Coal Ash
18.3 Extraction of REMs from Coal Bottom ash at CSIR-NML, Jamshedpur, India
18.4 Final Product
18.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 19: Characterization and Utilization of Coal Ash for Synthesis of Building Materials
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Coal Ash
19.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
19.3.1 Specific Gravity
19.3.2 Particle Size Distribution
19.3.2.1 Chemical Composition
19.3.2.2 Pozzolanic Characteristics
19.3.3 Microstructural and Mineralogical Properties
19.4 Utilization in Building Materials
19.4.1 Cement-Based Materials
19.4.1.1 Fly Ash
19.4.1.2 Bottom Ash
19.4.2 Alkali-Activated Materials
19.4.2.1 Fly Ash
19.4.2.2 Bottom Ash
19.4.3 Brick and Paving Materials
19.4.3.1 Fly Ash
19.4.3.2 Bottom Ash
19.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Prospective Utilization of Coal Fly Ash for Making Advanced Materials
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Environmental Pollution Due to Coal Waste
20.2.1 Effects Due to Heavy Metals
20.2.2 Effects Due to Toxic Trace Elements
20.2.3 Current Scenario of Manufacturing Products
20.2.3.1 Manufacturing Products Like Ceramic
20.2.3.2 Manufacturing Products Like Concrete
20.2.3.3 Manufacturing Products Like Matrix
20.2.4 Types of Products
20.2.4.1 Fabrication Microfiltration Membrane
20.2.4.2 Geopolymer Synthesis
20.2.4.3 Cements Production
20.2.4.4 Bricks Manufacturing
20.2.4.5 Fertilizer Production
20.2.4.6 Biodiesel Production
20.2.4.7 Synthesis of Lathy Tobermorite Fibers
20.2.4.8 Fabrication of Composite Materials
20.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Biochar Production for Green Environment
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Biochar: Definition and Properties
21.3 Preparation of Biochar
21.3.1 Pyrolysis
21.3.1.1 Effects of Parameters on Pyrolysis Process
21.3.2 Gasification
21.3.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization
21.4 Physiochemical Characteristics of Biochar
21.5 Biochar and Its Environmental Impact
21.6 Bioremediation and Amelioration of Soil
21.7 Improvement of Soil Fertility
21.8 Soil Treatment and Runoff
21.9 Soil Nutrient Dynamics by Using Biochar
21.10 Application of Biochar for Reducing the Greenhouse Gas Emission
21.11 Application of Biochar in Waste Management
21.12 Limitation and Difficulties of Biochar Application
21.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Distribution of Rare Earth Elements in Coal and Coal Fly Ash
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Coal
22.2.1 Distribution of REEs in Coal
22.3 Coal Fly Ash
22.3.1 Distribution of REEs in Coal Fly Ash
22.3.2 Indian Fly Ash
22.4 Ways to Recover REEs from Coal Fly Ash
22.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 23: Recent Development in Metal Extraction from Coal Fly Ash
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Metallurgical Methods for Processing Coal Fly Ash
23.2.1 Pyrometallurgical Methods
23.2.2 Hydrometallurgical Methods
23.2.2.1 Leaching
23.2.2.2 Bioleaching
23.2.2.3 Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange
23.3 Overview of Extraction of Selected Metals from Coal Fly Ash
23.3.1 Titanium
23.3.2 Aluminium
23.3.3 Silicon
23.3.4 Germanium
23.3.5 Gallium
23.3.6 Lithium
23.3.7 Rare Earth Metals with Yttrium and Scandium (REEs)
23.3.8 Trace Metals
References
Chapter 24: Application of Geochemical Modeling in Rare Earth Elements Leaching of Coal Combustion and Secondary Residues
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Motivation for Various REEs Leaching Studies
24.2.1 Comment on the Papers’ Similarities and Differences
24.3 Methodologies
24.3.1 Comment on the Methodology Used in the Different Studies
24.4 Results
24.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 25: Ionic Liquids for the Recovery of Rare Earth Elements from Coal Combustion Products
25.1 Rare Earth Metals
25.1.1 Applications of REEs
25.1.2 The Demand for REEs
25.2 Coal Combustion Products (CCPs)
25.2.1 Adverse Effects of CCPs
25.2.2 Components of Coal Combustion Products
25.2.3 Beneficial Use of CCPs
25.2.4 CCPs as Rare Earth Element Source
25.3 Ionic Liquids and their Role in Metal Extraction
25.3.1 Extraction of REEs by Ionic Liquids
25.3.1.1 Nonfunctional Ionic Liquids for REE Recovery
25.3.1.2 Functional Ionic Liquids for REE Recovery
25.3.2 Extraction of REEs from Coal Combustion Products by Ionic Liquids
25.3.3 Stripping of Rare Earths from IL Phase
25.3.4 Challenges Surrounding Ionic Liquid Uses
25.4 Conclusion
References
Index