Citrus Production: Technological Advancements and Adaptation to Changing Climate

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Citrus Origins
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Linguistic Perspective on the Origin and Dispersion of Citrus Fruits
1.3 Traditional Taxonomy of Citrus
1.3.1 Order of Sapindales, Family of Rutacea
1.3.2 True Citrus: Six Botanical Genera
1.3.2.1 Clymenia Swingle
1.3.2.2 Eremocitrus Swingle
1.3.2.3 Microcitrus Swingle
1.3.2.4 Poncirus Raf.
1.3.2.5 Fortunella Swingle
1.3.2.6 Citrus L.
1.4 Genetic Origin of Cultivated Citrus and New Classifications Based on Phylogenetic Data
1.4.1 A Single Genus Encompassing All True Citrus Species and Taxonomic System
1.4.2 Ancestral Taxa of Cultivated Citrus
1.4.2.1 Citrons (C. medica)
1.4.2.2 Mandarins (C. reticulata)
1.4.2.3 Pummelos (C. maxima)
1.4.2.4 Papedas (C. micrantha and C. ichangensis)
1.4.3 Genetic Origin and Classification of Admixed of Horticultural Groups
1.4.3.1 Cultivated Mandarins
1.4.3.2 Sour Orange (Citrus×aurantium var. aurantium ined.)
1.4.3.3 Sweet Orange (Citrus×aurantium var. sinensis ined.)
1.4.3.4 Grapefruits (Citrus×aurantium var. paradisi ined.)
1.4.3.5 Lemons (C.×limon (L.) Burm. f var. limon)
1.4.3.6 Limes
1.4.3.7 Other Limes and Lemons
1.5 Dispersion Over the World and Secondary Centers of Diversification
References
Chapter 2 Challenges to the Citrus Industry
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Challenges in the World Citrus Growing and Production due to Climate Change
2.2.1 Effects of Temperature
2.2.1.1 Low Temperatures (Chilling and Freezing)
2.2.1.2 High Temperature
2.2.1.3 Temperature Fluctuations
2.2.2 Solar Radiation
2.2.3 Precipitation Regime Change and Flooding
2.2.4 Drought
2.2.5 Wind
2.3 Diseases and Pests That Have Become Important Problems due to Climate Change
2.3.1 Diseases That Have Become Important Problems due to Climate Change
2.3.1.1 Effect of Rising Temperature on Diseases
2.3.1.2 Effect of Changes in Rainfall and Moisture on Disease
2.3.1.3 Effects of Rising CO2 Levels on Diseases
2.3.2 Pests That Have Become Important Problems due to Climate Change
2.3.2.1 Effect of Rising Temperature on Pests
2.3.2.2 Effect of Changes in Precipitation on Pests
2.3.2.3 Effect of Rising CO2 on Pests
2.4 The Challenges in World Citrus Trade due to Climate Change
2.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 3 Genetic Improvement in Citrus
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Importance and Role of Germplasm in Citrus Genetic Improvement
3.3 Breeding Techniques for Genetic Improvements in Citrus: Classical and Molecular Approaches
3.3.1 Selection Breeding
3.3.2 Mutation Breeding
3.3.3 Traditional Hybridization
3.3.4 Ploidy Manipulation
3.3.5 Somatic Hybridization in Citrus
3.3.6 Genetic Transformation in Citrus
3.3.7 Marker-Assisted Selection in Citrus
3.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4 Challenges and Advances in Citrus Breeding: Polyploidy Manipulation for Better Production
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Polyploidy in Citrus
4.2.1 Natural Polyploidy in Citrus
4.2.2 Synthetic Polyploidy in Citrus
4.2.2.1 Methods to Generate Polyploids in Citrus
4.2.2.2 Required Technological Advances
4.2.2.3 Types of Synthetic Citrus Polyploids
4.3 Advantages of Polyploidy for Citrus Breeding
4.3.1 Main Features of Tetraploid Citrus
4.3.1.1 Morphology
4.3.1.2 Physiology
4.3.2 Main Features of Triploid Citrus: Seedlessness and Fruit Quality
4.4 Main Uses of Polyploids
4.4.1 Why Associate Rootstock and Scion That Are Polyploid Together?
4.4.2 Tetraploids as Dwarfing Rootstocks
4.4.2.1 Autotetraploid Citrus Rootstocks
4.4.2.2 Allotetraploid Citrus Rootstocks
4.4.3 Polyploids to Face Environmental Stress
4.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5 Citrus Genetic Resources: Molecular Characterization, Omics and Conservation Approaches
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Significance of Genetic Resources, Biodiversity and Germplasm Conservation
5.3 Centers of Origin and Genetic Diversity
5.3.1 Mandarins (C. reticulata)
5.3.2 Sweet Oranges (C. sinensis)
5.3.3 Grapefruit (C. paradisi)
5.3.4 Mexican Lime (C. aurantifolia)
5.3.5 Sweet Lime (C. limettoides)
5.3.6 Lemon (C. limon)
5.3.7 Sour Orange (C. aurantium)
5.4 Germplasm Resource Centers
5.4.1 Germplasm Resources of Pakistan
5.5 Molecular Markers for Germplasm Characterization, Disease Tolerance and Core Collections
5.5.1 Germplasm Characterization
5.5.1.1 SSR
5.5.1.2 RAPD
5.5.1.3 SNPs
5.5.1.4 AFLP
5.5.2 Disease Tolerance
5.5.2.1 Citrus Variegated Chlorosis
5.5.2.2 Citrus Tristeza Virus
5.5.2.3 Citrus Canker
5.5.2.4 Citrus Greening Disease
5.5.2.5 Citrus Wither Tip
5.5.3 Core Collections of Germplasm
5.6 Proteomics, Metabolomics and Transcriptomics
5.7 Gene Editing and Disease Tolerance
5.8 Bioinformatics
5.9 Ex-Situ Germplasm Conservation Systems
5.9.1 Slow Growth Mechanism
5.9.2 Cryopreservation
5.10 Conclusions
5.11 Future Recommendations
References
Chapter 6 Citrus Nursery Management and Modern Trends
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nursery Standards
6.3 Issues for Nursery Growers
6.4 Preparation for Nursery
6.4.1 Site Selection
6.4.2 Covering Materials
6.4.3 Nursery Floors and Benches
6.4.4 Shade Houses
6.5 Modern Nursery production
6.5.1 Greenhouse
6.5.2 Polytunnel
6.5.3 Polyhouse
6.5.4 Net House
6.5.5 Plastic Tunnel
6.5.6 Hot Beds
6.5.7 Cold Frames
6.5.8 Lath House
6.6 Potting Mixer
6.6.1 Potting Mixer – Desired Characteristics
6.6.2 Choice of Ingredients to Make Your Own Potting Mix
6.6.3 Descriptions of Various Common Potting Mix Materials
Silt
Sand
Animal Manure
Sawdust
Bagasse and Press Mud
Vermiculite
Perlite
Rice Hulls
Coconut Fiber
Peat Moss
6.6.4 Preparation of Potting Mix
6.6.5 Preparation of Disease-Free Potting Mix and Keeping It Up
6.6.6 Pasteurization of Ingredients and Potting Mix
6.6.7 Handling of Potting Mix
6.7 Raising Rootstock Plants
6.8 Pros and Cons of Using Rough Lemon Rootstock
6.8.1 Sowing of Seed
6.8.2 Transplanting of Seedlings
6.8.3 Bud Wood Selection and Scion Propagation
6.8.4 Procedure of Budding and Grafting
6.8.4.1 Equipment
6.8.4.2 T-Budding
6.8.4.3 Micro-budding
6.8.4.4 Chip Budding
6.8.4.5 Grafting
6.8.4.6 Cutting
6.8.4.7 Air Layering
6.9 Characteristics of Standard Plant
References
Chapter 7 Citrus Flowering and Fruit Setting
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Flowering Mechanism
7.2.1 Different Types of Inflorescences
7.3 Manipulation of Flowering
7.3.1 Manipulation through Environmental Factors
7.3.1.1 Water
7.3.1.2 Temperature
7.3.2 Manipulation through Cultural Practices
7.3.3 Other Factors
7.3.3.1 Cultivar
7.3.3.2 Age and Condition of the Plant
7.3.3.3 Nutritional Status
7.3.3.4 Influence of Fruits
7.3.3.5 Hormones
7.4 Pollination and Fertilization
7.5 Fruit Setting
7.6 Parthenocarpy
7.7 Regulation of Fruit Setting
7.7.1 Endogenous Regulation
7.7.1.1 Influence of Hormones
7.7.1.2 Competitiveness for Photoassimilates
7.7.2 Exogenous Regulation
7.7.2.1 Influence of Temperature
7.7.2.2 Influence of Irrigation
7.7.2.3 Influence of Nitrogen Fertilizers
7.7.2.4 Influence of Mineral Deficiencies
7.7.2.5 Influence of Blossom Intensity
7.7.2.6 Influence of the Position of Flowers on the Tree
7.8 Fruit Development
7.8.1 Factors Affecting Fruit Development
7.8.1.1 Tree Age
7.8.1.2 Endogenous Factors
7.8.1.3 Placement of Fruit on the Tree
7.8.1.4 Leaf Area
7.8.1.5 Flowering Intensity
7.8.1.6 Seed Number
7.8.1.7 Competition between Developing Fruits
7.8.2 Environmental Factors
7.8.2.1 Temperature
7.8.2.2 Relative Humidity
7.8.3 Cultural Practices
7.8.3.1 Irrigation
7.8.3.2 Fertilization
7.8.3.3 Treatments for Fruit Setting
7.9 Strategies to Improve Fruit Size
7.9.1 Pruning
7.9.2 Chemical Thinning
7.9.3 Manual Thinning
7.9.4 Suppression of Flowering
7.9.5 Girdling
7.9.6 Application of Auxins
7.10 Seed Development
References
Chapter 8 Salinity Effects and Tolerance Mechanisms in Citrus
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Physiological Effects of Salts
8.2.1 Osmotic Effects
8.2.2 Specific Ion Toxicity
8.2.3 Nutritional Imbalances
8.2.4 Oxidative Stress
8.3 Responses of Citrus Trees to Salt Stress
8.3.1 Germination and Emergence
8.3.2 Photosynthesis and Gas Exchange
8.3.3 Growth
8.3.4 Yield
8.3.5 Disease Responses
8.4 Tolerance Mechanisms in Rootstocks and Scions
8.4.1 Salt Compartmentalization
8.4.2 Salt Exclusion
8.4.3 Anatomical Changes
8.5 Management of Salinity in Citriculture
8.5.1 Chemical Treatments
8.5.2 Evaluation of Genetic Resources
8.5.3 Breeding of Salt-Tolerant Cultivars
8.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9 Citrus Responses and Tolerance to Drought
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Physiological Mechanisms Involved in the Tolerance to Water Deficit
9.2.1 Plant Hormones
9.2.2 Carbohydrates
9.2.3 Osmotic Adjustment
9.2.4 Antioxidant System
9.3 Survival Strategies
9.4 Influence of Scion/Rootstock Interaction on Tolerance to Water Deficit
9.5 Updates on Water Deficit in the Citrus Crop
References
Chapter 10 Citrus Responses and Tolerance against Temperature Stress
10.1 Introduction
10.2 High Temperature
10.2.1 Growth and Development
10.2.2 Physiology and Biochemistry
10.2.3 High Temperature and Genetics
10.3 Cold Stress
10.3.1 Impact of Cold Stress on Growth and Development
10.3.2 Physiological Response
10.3.2.1 Changes of Citrus Membranes under Low-Temperature Stress
10.3.2.2 Photosynthesis in Citrus under Cold Stress
10.3.3 Biochemical Reaction
10.3.3.1 Osmotic Protectors and Cryogenics
10.3.3.2 Hormones and Stress Caused by Cold Temperatures
References
Chapter 11 Citrus Responses under Waterlogging
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Physiological and Biochemical Responses of Citrus to Soil Flooding
11.3 Perception and Signal Transduction of Low Oxygen Conditions: Molecular Responses Associated to Soil Flooding
11.4 Soil Flooding as a Relevant Agronomical Problem in the Context of Climate Change: Future Directions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 12 Citrus Metabolic and Antioxidant Responses to High Light Stress
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Photosynthesis and Its Components
12.3 High Light Stress Effect on Plants
12.4 Abiotic Stress Tolerance
12.5 Antioxidant Defense System
12.5.1 Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Citrus
12.5.1.1 Antioxidant Phenolic Metabolites
12.5.1.2 Flavonoid's Role during Abiotic Stress
12.5.1.3 Antioxidant Carotenoids in Citrus
12.5.1.4 Glutathione (GSH)
12.5.2 Synthesis of Antioxidant Vitamins in Response to High Light Stress
12.5.2.1 Tocopherols' Role under Abiotic Stress
12.5.2.2 Ascorbic Acid Role during High Light Stress Adaptation
12.5.3 Biosynthesis of Osmoprotectants
12.5.3.1 Proline and Glycine Betaine
12.6 Enzymatic or Non-Metabolic Antioxidant Defense System
12.6.1 Superoxide Dismutase
12.6.2 Catalase (CAT)
12.6.3 Peroxidase (POD)
12.6.4 Glutathione Reductase
12.6.5 Glutathione S-Transferases (GSTs)
12.6.6 Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX)
12.6.7 Ascorbate Peroxidase (APX)
12.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13 Food Security and Safety in an Era of Technological Advancement and Changing Environment: Heavy Metal Contamination and Citrus Responses
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Toxicity of Heavy Metals
13.2.1 Arsenic (As)
13.2.2 Copper (Cu)
13.2.3 Lead (Pb)
13.2.4 Zinc (Zn)
13.3 Mechanism and Factors Affecting Heavy Metal Uptake and Bioaccumulation in Plants
13.4 Modulation of Physiological Responses of Plants Following Metal Exposure
13.4.1 Effects of Heavy Metals on Chlorophyll
13.4.2 Effects of Heavy Metals on Photosynthesis
13.4.3 Effect of Heavy Metals on Nutrient Uptake
13.4.4 Heavy Metal-Induced Oxidative Stress and Lipid Peroxidation
13.4.5 Citrus Production in Relation to Heavy Metals
13.5 Deposition of Heavy Metals in Edible Parts
13.6 Conclusions
13.7 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 14 Citrus Responses against Nutritional Imbalance
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Role of Plant Nutrients in Citrus Growth
14.2.1 Primary and Secondary Macronutrients
14.2.1.1 Carbon (C)
14.2.1.2 Hydrogen (H)
14.2.1.3 Oxygen (O)
14.2.1.4 Nitrogen (N)
14.2.1.5 Phosphorus (P)
14.2.1.6 Potassium (K)
14.2.1.7 Calcium (Ca)
14.2.1.8 Magnesium (Mg)
14.2.1.9 Sulfur (S)
14.2.2 Micronutrients
14.2.2.1 Sodium (Na)
14.2.2.2 Silicon (Si)
14.2.2.3 Iron (Fe)
14.2.2.4 Manganese (Mn)
14.2.2.5 Copper (Cu)
14.2.2.6 Zinc (Zn)
14.2.2.7 Molybdenum (Mo)
14.2.2.8 Boron (B)
14.2.2.9 Chloride (Cl)
14.2.2.10 Nickel (Ni)
14.2.2.11 Cobalt (Co)
14.3 Citrus nutrient Requirements
14.3.1 Soil Characteristics for Citrus-Producing Regions
14.3.2 Soils of the Mediterranean Regions
14.4 Nutrient Management Aspects for Addressing Deficiencies
14.4.1 Fertigation
14.4.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fertigation
14.4.2 Dry Granular Fertilization
14.4.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
14.4.3 Use of Slow-and Controlled-Release Fertilizers (SCRFs)
14.4.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
14.4.4 Foliar Fertilization
14.4.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
14.5 Soil pH: Acidity and Alkalinity
14.6 Nutritional Disorders
14.6.1 Plant Nutrient Deficiencies and Symptoms
14.6.1.1 Nitrogen (N)
14.6.1.2 Phosphorus (P)
14.6.1.3 Potassium (K)
14.6.1.4 Calcium (Ca)
14.6.1.5 Magnesium (Mg)
14.6.1.6 Iron (Fe)
14.6.1.7 Copper (Cu)
14.6.1.8 Manganese (Mn)
14.6.1.9 Zinc (Zn)
14.7 Leaf Sampling: A Tool for Diagnosing Nutritional Disorders
14.7.1 The Importance of Leaf Tissues in Diagnosis
14.7.2 Sampling Techniques for Citrus Groves
14.8 Relationship between Nutrition and Huanglongbing Disease (HLB, Greening Disease)
14.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Organic Fertilization for Citrus Production
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Impact of Organic Amendments on Soil Properties and Nutrients Availability to Citrus
15.3 Use of Organic Materials as Potting Media for Citrus Nursery
15.4 Impact of Organic Fertilization on Citrus Yield and Fruit Quality
15.5 Impact on Diseases/Insect Pests and Post-Harvest Shelf Life
15.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16 Importance of Soil Microbes in Improving Citrus Production: Excellence of Mycorrhizal Fungi
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Microbial Diversity
16.2.1 Bacteria
16.2.2 Beneficial Nematodes
16.2.3 Mycorrhizal Fungi
16.3 Mycorrhizal Interaction with Citrus Plants
16.3.1 Role of AMF in Improving Citrus Growth
16.3.2 Soil Fertility and Citrus Nutrition
16.3.3 Root Architecture and Fruit Quality
16.3.4 Tolerance to Biotic and Abiotic Stress
16.3.5 AMF-Mediated Abiotic Stress Tolerance
16.3.6 AMF-Mediated Biotic Stress Tolerance
16.4 AMF Management in Orchards
16.5 Future Perspective and Conclusion
References
Chapter 17 Diseases of Citrus and Their Control
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Challenging Citrus Diseases That Threaten Citrus Production in the Current World
17.2.1 Huanglongbing (HLB) or Citrus Greening
17.2.2 Citrus Canker
17.2.3 Citrus Variegated Chlorosis
17.2.4 Diseases Caused by Phytophthora (Phytophthora Foot Rot, Crown Rot, and Root Rot (Gummosis)
17.2.5 Citrus Black Spot
17.2.6 Post-Bloom Fruit Drop (PFD)
17.2.7 Citrus Tristeza Virus
17.2.8 Citrus Leprosis Viruses
17.3 Citrus Diseases around the World
17.3.1 Citrus Fungal Diseases: Preharvest
17.3.1.1 Citrus Scabs
17.3.1.2 Brown Spot, Leaf, and Black Spot Caused by Alternaria spp.
17.3.1.3 Greasy Spots
17.3.1.4 Melanose
17.3.1.5 Mal Secco
17.3.2 Citrus Fungal Diseases: Postharvest
17.3.2.1 Citrus Green and Blue Mold
17.3.2.2 Citrus Sour Rot
17.3.2.3 Stem-End Rot
17.3.2.4 Anthracnose
17.3.2.5 Brown Rot
17.3.3 Citrus Postharvest Disease Management and Control Practices
17.3.3.1 From the Grove to the Packinghouse
17.3.3.2 Ethylene Degreening
17.3.3.3 Sanitization
17.3.3.4 Chemical Fungicides
17.3.3.5 Chemical Residual Tolerance
17.3.4 Virus and Viroid Citrus Diseases
17.3.5 Citrus Diseases of Unknown Etiology
17.3.5.1 Citrus Blight
17.4 Citrus Disease(s) Models to Understand the Control and Spread of the Diseases
17.5 Grower's Perspective/Investment/Profitability to Challenging Citrus Diseases
17.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18 Genetic Strategies to Tackle Citrus Huanglongbing
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Pathosystem
18.2.1 Pathogen
18.2.2 Psyllid Vector Transmission
18.2.3 Host Range
18.2.3.1 Psyllid Vector Hosts
18.2.3.2 Candidatus Liberibacter spp. Hosts
18.3 Breeding Strategies for Improving Citrus HLB Tolerance and Resistance
18.3.1 Tolerant and Resistant Germplasm
18.3.2 Conventional Breeding
18.3.3 Breeding Using Biotechnological Approaches
18.3.3.1 Molecular Markers and Quantitative Traits Loci Detection
18.3.3.2 Identification of Candidate Gene by Transcriptomic Studies
18.3.3.3 Genetic Engineering
18.3.4 Ploidy Manipulation
18.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19 Insect Pests of Citrus Production
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Mealybugs
19.2.1 Background
19.2.2 Biology and Life Cycle
19.2.3 Damage and Economic Damage
19.2.4 Management
19.2.4.1 Chemical Management
19.2.4.2 Biological Management
19.3 Citrus Leaf Miner
19.3.1 Background
19.3.2 Biology and Life Cycle
19.3.3 Ecology and Behavior
19.3.4 Economic Impact and Damage
19.3.5 Management
19.3.5.1 Cultural Practices
19.3.5.2 Mechanical Control
19.3.5.3 Biological Control
19.3.5.4 Chemical Management
19.4 Fruit Fly
19.4.1 History and Distribution
19.4.2 Biology and Life Cycle
19.4.2.1 Eggs
19.4.2.2 Larvae
19.4.2.3 Pupae
19.4.2.4 Adults
19.4.3 Ecology and Behavior
19.4.4 Damage and Economic Significance
19.4.5 Management
19.4.5.1 Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods
19.4.5.2 Regulatory Control
19.4.5.3 Biological Control
19.4.5.4 Chemical Control
19.4.5.5 Sterile Insect Technique
19.5 Citrus Butterfly
19.5.1 Distribution and History
19.5.2 Biology and Life Cycle
19.5.3 Ecology and Behavior
19.5.4 Damage and Economic Significance
19.5.5 Management
19.5.5.1 Biochemical Control
19.5.5.2 Biological Control
19.5.5.3 Insecticides with a Biorational Approach
19.6 Asian Citrus Psyllids
19.6.1 Background
19.6.2 Biology and Life Cycle
19.6.3 Damage and Economic Significance
19.6.4 Management
References
Chapter 20 Pollination in Citrus
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Mode of Citrus Pollination
20.3 Floral Phenology
20.4 Citrus Flower as the Nectar and Pollen Source
20.5 Diversity of Citrus Pollinators
20.6 Pollination and Postharvest
20.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21 Maturity Indices and Harvesting Methods for Citrus Fruit
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Maturity and Ripening at Harvest
21.2.1 Maturity Indices (Internal Standards)
21.2.2 Mandarin
21.2.3 Sweet Orange
21.2.4 Lime and Lemon
21.2.5 Grapefruit and Pummelo
21.3 Fruit Grades (External Standards)
21.3.1 Minimum Standards
21.3.2 Maturity Standards
21.4 International and Domestic Standards
21.4.1 Fruit Classification
21.4.1.1 Extra Class
21.4.1.2 Class I
21.4.1.3 Class II
21.4.2 Fruit Size
21.4.3 Citrus Fruit Quality Standards in Pakistan
21.5 Harvesting Methods
21.5.1 Manual Method
21.5.1.1 Injuries to Fruit
21.5.1.2 Cost of Manual Harvesting
21.5.2 Mechanical Harvesting
21.5.2.1 Trunk Shaker
21.5.2.2 Trunk Shaker with Umbrella
21.5.2.3 Light Shaker Coupled to a Pedestrian Tractor
21.5.2.4 Loosening Chemicals
21.5.2.5 Cost of Mechanical Harvesting
References
Chapter 22 Preharvest Factors That Influence Postharvest Losses of Citrus Fruits
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Types of Losses
22.2.1 Quantitative-Based Physical Losses
22.2.1.1 Fruit Weight
22.2.1.2 Fruit Size
22.2.1.3 Juice Contents
22.2.1.4 Peel Thickness
22.2.1.5 Fruit Rind Blemishes
22.2.1.6 Factors Affecting Occurrence and Development of Rind Blemishes
22.2.1.7 Cultural Practices
22.2.1.8 Insects
22.2.1.9 Diseases
22.2.1.10 Environmental Factors
22.2.1.11 Strategies to Reduce Citrus Fruit Rind Blemishes
22.2.2 Color
22.2.3 Flavor
22.3 Qualitative-Based Biochemical Losses
22.3.1 Total Soluble Solids
22.3.2 Titratable Acidity
22.3.3 Sugar Contents
22.3.4 Organic Acids
22.3.5 Phytochemicals
22.4 Physiological Losses
22.4.1 Respiration Rate
22.4.2 Ethylene Production
22.5 Impact of Preharvest Disease Infestation on Quality of Citrus Fruits
22.6 Impact of Preharvest Pests Infestation on Quality and Losses of Citrus Fruits
22.7 Harvest Time and Maturity
22.8 Rootstock and Cultivars/Scions
22.9 Impact of Climate Variables
22.9.1 Temperature, Rainfall, and Relative Humidity
22.9.2 Impact of Solar Radiation
22.9.3 Impact of Winds/Wind Storms
22.10 Impact of Cultural Practices on Postharvest Quality and Losses of Citrus Fruits
22.10.1 Impact of Mineral Nutrients
22.10.1.1 Macronutrients
22.10.1.2 Micronutrients
22.11 Impact of Irrigation Practices on Postharvest Quality and Losses of Citrus Fruits
22.12 Impact of Pruning and Thinning Practices on Postharvest Quality and Losses of Citrus Fruits
22.13 Impact of Physiological Disorders on Postharvest Quality and Losses of Citrus Fruits
22.14 Impact of Harvesting Methods on Postharvest Quality and Losses of Citrus Fruits
22.15 Citrus Quality Improvement and Losses Reduction with Preharvest Treatments
22.15.1 Auxins
22.15.2 Gibberellins
22.15.3 Polyamines
22.15.4 Aminoethoxyvinylglycine
22.15.5 Salicylic Acid
22.15.6 Methyl Jasmonate
22.15.7 Others
22.16 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 23 Postharvest Physiology of Citrus Fruit
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Preharvest Factors Affecting Postharvest Quality
23.2.1 Soil
23.2.2 Climate
23.2.3 Tree Age
23.2.4 Canopy Position
23.2.5 Cultivar/Genotypic Variation
23.2.6 Rootstock
23.2.7 Cultural Practices
23.2.7.1 Mineral Nutrition
23.2.7.2 Irrigation
23.2.7.3 Weed Management
23.2.7.4 Pruning
23.2.7.5 Insects
23.2.7.6 Diseases
23.2.8 Preharvest Application of Chemicals
23.2.8.1 Calcium
23.2.8.2 Auxins
23.2.8.3 Gibberellic Acid
23.2.8.4 Polyamines
23.2.8.5 Methyl Jasmonate
23.2.9 Harvest Maturity
23.3 Fruit Quality
23.3.1 Physical Fruit Quality
23.3.2 Physiological Fruit Quality
23.3.3 Biochemical Fruit Quality
23.3.4 Phytochemical Fruit Quality
23.3.4.1 Ascorbic Acid
23.3.4.2 Total Phenolic Contents
23.3.4.3 Total Carotenoid Contents
23.3.5 Postharvest Diseases and Their Control
23.3.5.1 Anthracnose
23.3.5.2 Blue Mold
23.3.5.3 Green Mold
23.3.5.4 Sour Rot
23.3.5.5 Brown Rot
23.3.5.6 Diplodia Stem End Rot
23.3.5.7 Phomopsis Stem End Rot
23.3.5.8 Alternaria Stem End Rot
23.3.6 Postharvest Physiological Disorders
23.3.6.1 Chilling Injury
23.3.6.2 Peteca
23.3.6.3 Oleocellosis
23.3.6.4 Red Blotch
23.3.6.5 Stylar-End Breakdown/Deformity
23.3.7 Postharvest Storage Life and Fruit Quality Management
23.3.7.1 Precooling
23.3.7.2 Heat Treatments
23.3.7.3 Cold Storage
23.3.7.4 Intermittent Warming
23.3.7.5 Controlled Atmosphere Storage
23.3.7.6 Low-Pressure Storage
23.3.7.7 Modified Atmosphere Packaging
23.3.7.8 Edible Coatings
23.3.7.9 Irradiations
23.3.7.10 Plant Growth Regulators
23.3.8 Effect of Pesticide/PGRs/Chemical Residues on Quality
23.3.9 Postharvest Oxidative Stress
23.3.10 Molecular Aspects Related to Postharvest Citrus Fruit Quality
23.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24 Pre- and Postharvest Physiological Disorders of Citrus Fruit
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Preharvest Physiological Disorders of Citrus Fruits
24.2.1 Fruit Cracking
24.2.2 Rind Creasing
24.2.3 Granulation
24.2.4 Fruit Drop
24.2.5 Alternate Bearing
24.3 Factors Affecting Physiological Disorders
24.3.1 Temperature
24.3.2 Solar Radiations
24.3.3 Relative Humidity
24.3.4 Rootstocks
24.3.5 Cultivars or Genotypes
24.3.6 Mineral Nutrients
24.4 Management of Preharvest Physiological Disorders
24.4.1 Growth Regulators
24.4.1.1 Abscisic Acid
24.4.1.2 Auxins
24.4.1.3 Brassinosteroids
24.4.1.4 Gibberellins
24.4.1.5 Salicylic Acid
24.4.1.6 Polyamines and Aminoethoxyvinylglycine
24.5 Mineral Nutrients
24.5.1 Calcium
24.5.2 Zinc
24.5.3 Others
24.6 Postharvest Physiological Disorders of Citrus Fruits
24.6.1 Chilling-Related Disorders
24.6.1.1 Chilling Injury
24.6.2 Non-chilling-Related Rind Disorders
24.6.2.1 Oleocellosis
24.6.2.2 Stem-End Rind Breakdown
24.6.2.3 Russeting, Stylar end Breakdown, and Blossom End Clearing
24.6.2.4 Rind Staining or Rind Breakdown
24.6.3 Other Physiological Disorders
24.7 Management of Postharvest Physiological Disorders of Citrus Fruits
24.7.1 Hot Water Treatments
24.7.2 Low-Temperature Conditioning
24.7.3 PGRs-Based Treatments and Management Practices
24.7.4 Relative Humidity, Temperature, and Selected Postharvest Practices
24.7.5 Different Chemical Base Treatments
24.7.6 Use of Edible Coatings
24.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 25 Strategies to Reduce Postharvest Losses of Citrus Fruits
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Techniques for Reducing Postharvest Losses of Citrus Fruits
25.3 Gaseous Treatment
25.3.1 Ozone
25.3.2 1-Methylcyclopropene
25.3.3 Ethylene
25.3.4 Nitric Oxide
25.4 Controlled Atmosphere Storage and Modified Atmosphere Packaging
25.5 Heat Treatment
25.6 Edible Coating
25.7 Irradiation
25.7.1 Ultraviolet Irradiation
25.7.2 Gamma-Rays
25.7.3 Electron Beam and X-rays Irradiation
25.7.4 X-rays
25.8 Antimicrobial Chemicals
25.9 Plasma Treatment
25.10 Electrolyzed Water
References
Chapter 26 The Supply and Value Chain of Citrus Fruit: Producer to Consumer
26.1 Introduction
26.1.1 Horticultural Produce Distribution Systems
26.1.1.1 Supply Chain
26.1.1.2 Value Chain
26.1.1.3 Cold Chain
26.1.1.4 Demand Chain
26.1.1.5 Logistics
26.1.2 Understanding the Value Chain and Dynamics of the Citrus Crop
26.1.3 Production and Consumption Pattern of Citrus Crop
26.2 Structure of Citrus Industry at Different Countries
26.2.1 Citrus Industry of China
26.2.2 Citrus Industry of United States (USA)
26.2.3 Citrus Industry of Pakistan
26.3 Citrus Value Chain Stakeholders
26.3.1 Interactions among Citrus Value Chain Stakeholders
26.3.1.1 Interaction of Producer and Middlemen
26.3.1.2 Interaction of Traders
26.3.1.3 Retailer Supplier Interaction
26.3.1.4 Retailer Consumer Interaction
26.3.1.5 Equipment, Machinery and Logistic Supplier
26.3.1.6 Extension Service, Suppliers and Public Entities
26.4 Citrus Value Chain and Its Linkages
26.4.1 Production
26.4.2 Harvesting
26.4.3 Packing
26.4.4 Transportation
26.4.5 Port Handling and Shipping
26.4.6 Handling at Importing Markets Up To Sales
26.4.7 Other Costs
26.5 Citrus Value Chain and Food Losses
References
Chapter 27 Citrus Bioactive Compounds
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Bioactive Compounds in Citrus
References
Index