Cities and Mega Risks: COVID-19 and Climate Change

Introduction
Key Messages
Structure and Framework
Acknowledgments
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I: Overview: Risks, Cities, and Sustainable Development
1: Risks, Resilience, and Sustainable Development
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Risk Trends and Dimensions
1.2.1 Risks in History
1.2.2 Risks and Disasters in the Twenty-First Century
1.2.3 Risks and Disasters in 2020
1.2.4 Health Risks—Epidemics and Pandemics
1.2.5 Myth of the Twenty-First Century on Epidemics and Pandemics
1.3 Coronavirus and Climate Change: The Twin Mega Risks
1.3.1 Drivers of Mega Risks
1.3.2 Preparedness to Face Mega Risks
1.3.3 Similarities and Differences in Twin Mega Risks
1.4 Risk Management and Resilience
1.4.1 Resilience Against Risks
1.4.2 Risk Preparedness and Management
1.5 Risk Management and Global Agenda on Risk and Sustainable Development
1.5.1 Global Institutions
1.5.2 International Agenda for Risk Management and DRR
1.5.2.1 International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) 1990–1999
1.5.2.2 International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
1.5.2.3 Hyogo Framework of Action (2005–2015)
1.5.2.4 Post HFA International Agenda on DRR
1.5.2.5 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2 030
1.5.2.6 Paris Agreement on Climate Change
1.5.2.7 Sustainable Development Agenda 2030
1.5.2.8 Addis Ababa Action Agenda
1.5.2.9 New Urban Agenda
1.5.2.10 Agenda for Humanity
1.5.3 Prospects in the Implementation of Global Agenda
1.6 Conclusion
References
2: Cities’ Sustainability in a Risk-Prone World
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Perspectives on Cities
2.2.1 Cities as Human Habitat
2.2.2 Cities as Centers of Economic and Political Power
2.3 Mega Risks and Cities Transformation
2.3.1 COVID-19
2.3.1.1 Triggering Factors
2.3.1.2 City Size and COVID-19
2.3.1.3 Economic and Social Effects
2.3.2 Climate Change
2.3.2.1 Range of Impacts
2.3.2.2 Economic Losses
2.4 Cities’ Response to Mega Risks
2.4.1 Coronavirus Pandemic
2.4.1.1 Immediate Response
2.4.1.2 Constraints/Predicaments
2.4.1.3 Rescue and Recovery
2.4.2 Climate Change
2.4.2.1 Cities and Climate Emergency
2.4.2.2 Climate Action and Mitigation
2.4.2.3 Cities and Climate Adaptation
2.5 Preparedness for Handling Urban Mega Risks
2.6 Conclusion
References
Part II: Overview: Mega Risks Monitoring, Management, and Sustainable Development
3: Mega Risks: Monitoring for Management and Sustainability
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Monitoring and Managing COVID-19
3.2.1 GIS Use in Monitoring/Managing Diseases
3.2.1.1 Origin and History
3.2.1.2 Multidimensional Use in the Pandemic
3.2.2 Observational, Analytical, and Display Tools
3.2.2.1 Maps
3.2.2.2 Web-Based Dashboards and Interactive Maps
3.2.2.3 Satellite Navigation and Communication-Based Devices
3.2.2.4 Robotics and Drones
3.3 Monitoring and Management of Climate Change
3.3.1 Multidimensional Use of GIS
3.3.2 Observational, Analytical, and Display Tools
3.3.3 Monitoring and Preparedness to Face Risks
3.4 Conclusion
References
4: Mega Risks: Digital Transformation and Sustainability
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Cities, Digitalization, and COVID-19
4.2.1 Bridging the Functional Gaps
4.2.2 Digital Technologies in the New Normal
4.2.2.1 Remote Working
4.2.2.2 Business and Industries
4.2.2.3 Education
4.2.2.4 Health
4.2.2.5 Governance and Public Administration
4.2.2.6 Social Media
4.2.3 Pressure on Networks and Resilience
4.2.3.1 Intensity of Pressure
4.2.3.2 Resilience to Stress
4.3 Climate Change, ICT, and Digital Technologies
4.3.1 Monitoring and Early Warning
4.3.1.1 World Weather Watch
4.3.1.2 Global Climate Observing System
4.3.2 Mitigation
4.3.3 Adaptation
4.4 Digital Technology, Ethical Considerations, and Other Issues
4.4.1 Infringement of Privacy and Personal Autonomy
4.4.2 Digital Divide
4.4.3 Cybersecurity
4.4.4 Spreading of Misinformation
4.4.5 Environmental and Social Impacts
4.5 Conclusion
References
Part III: Mega Risks, Urban Economic Development, and Sustainability
5: Mega Risks, Urban Economies, and Sustainability
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Impacts of Mega Risks on Urban Economy
5.2.1 Coronavirus and Urban Economy
5.2.1.1 Intensity of the Impact
5.2.1.2 Impact on Informal Economy and Urban Poor
5.2.1.3 Varied Sectoral Impacts
5.2.1.4 Differential Impacts Within a City
5.2.2 Climate Change and Urban Economy
5.2.2.1 Damage Cost
5.2.2.2 Intensity of the Impact
5.2.2.3 Impacts on Port Cities
5.2.2.4 Sectoral Impacts
5.3 Cities Response to Mega Risk
5.3.1 Economic Response to Coronavirus Pandemic
5.3.1.1 Rescue and Midterm Measures
5.3.1.2 Long-Term Strategies
5.3.1.3 Greening of Recovery and Development
5.3.2 Economic Response to Climate Crisis
5.3.2.1 Policies and Plans
5.3.2.2 Fiscal Instruments and Urban Climate Financing
5.4 Conclusion
References
6: Mega Risks, Urban Energy Use, and Sustainable Development
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Energy Supply/Consumption
6.3 Urban Energy and Coronavirus
6.3.1 Pandemic Impacts on Urban Energy
6.3.2 Environmental Gains from Energy Use Reduction
6.3.3 Energy Lessons and Opportunities from the Pandemic
6.4 Energy’s Carbon Footprint and Climate Change
6.5 Urban Energy Policies/Strategies and Climate Change
6.5.1 Policy Framing and Setting Targets
6.5.2 Policy-Based Solutions in Urban Energy Management
6.5.2.1 Building and Construction
6.5.2.2 Transport Interventions
6.5.2.3 Technological Solutions
6.5.2.4 Renewable Adaptation and Innovation
6.5.2.5 Smart Energy Infrastructure
6.5.2.6 Circular Economy
6.5.2.7 Solutions Through Networking
6.6 Problems and Constraints in Undertaking Policy Initiatives
6.7 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Mega Risks, Urban Social Development, and Sustainability
7: Mega Risks and Urban Health System: Investment in Life
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Coronavirus Pandemic: Impacts and Response
7.2.1 Cities’ Vulnerabilities and Impacts
7.2.1.1 Spatial and Temporal Impacts
7.2.1.2 Pandemic Pressure on the Healthcare System
7.2.1.3 Pressure on Non-pandemic Healthcare Services
7.2.1.4 Health Costs of Pandemic
7.2.2 Response to the Health Impacts
7.2.2.1 Public/Governmental Response
7.2.2.2 Nongovernmental Response
7.2.2.3 Response Effectiveness
7.2.2.4 Preparedness Versus Response: Lessons Learned
7.2.2.5 Pandemic’s Future: Possible Scenarios
7.2.2.6 Vaccination and the Pandemic
7.3 Climate Change and Health: Impacts and Response
7.3.1 Impacts on Health
7.3.1.1 Temperature-Related Impacts
7.3.1.2 Extreme Climate-Related Events
7.3.1.3 Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases
7.3.1.4 Food and Water Supply Insecurity
7.3.1.5 Vector-Borne Diseases
7.3.1.6 Climate Change Impacts on Air Quality and Aeroallergens
7.3.1.7 Occupational Health
7.3.1.8 Stress and Psychological Problems
7.3.2 Response to Climate Change Impacts on Health
7.3.2.1 Mitigation and Adaptation Actions
7.3.2.2 Building Urban Climate Resilience
7.4 Conclusion
References
8: Mega Risks, Education, Knowledge, and Sustainability
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Impact of COVID-19 on Education
8.2.1 Learning Losses
8.2.2 Other Related Losses
8.2.3 Teachers’ Predicament due to School Closures
8.2.4 Pressure on Parents
8.2.5 Inequality of Impacts
8.2.6 Impacts on Higher Education
8.3 Policy Response
8.3.1 Immediate Response: Introduction of Remote Learning
8.3.2 Disparity in Access to Devices and Means for Remote Learning
8.3.3 Remote Learning Problems
8.3.4 Recovery Actions
8.3.5 Long-Term Actions
8.4 Impact of Climate Change on Education
8.4.1 Direct Impacts
8.4.2 Indirect Impacts
8.4.3 Climate Change: Estimated Costs to the Education Sector
8.5 Response to Climatic Impacts
8.5.1 Emergency Coping
8.5.2 Medium- and Long-Term Actions
8.6 Conclusion
References
9: Mega Risks, Social Protection, and Sustainability
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Social Impacts of Mega Risks in Cities
9.2.1 COVID-19 Social Impacts
9.2.1.1 Socioeconomic Insecurity
9.2.1.2 Sharpening Inequalities
9.2.2 Climate Change Social Impacts
9.2.2.1 Socioeconomic Insecurity
9.2.2.2 Sharpening Inequalities
9.2.2.3 Differential Impacts
9.3 Social Protection Policy Response to COVID-19 and Climate Change
9.3.1 COVID-19 and Social Protection Policy Response
9.3.1.1 Policy Measures Adopted by Governments
9.3.1.2 Challenges and Constraints
9.3.1.3 Contribution of NGOs, Charitable Organizations, Communities, and Businesses
9.3.2 Climate Change Response
9.3.2.1 Social Protections Programs and Climate Change
9.3.2.2 Coverage Gaps and Coping Approaches
9.3.2.3 Role of International Relief Organizations, Civil Society, and Private Sector Charities
9.4 Conclusion
References
Part V: Mega Risks, City Governance, and Vision for Cities of Tomorrow
10: Mega Risks, Urban Governance, and Sustainability
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Urban Governance and Coronavirus Pandemic
10.2.1 Governance Institutions and Practices
10.2.2 Institutional Mechanisms
10.2.2.1 Existing Institutional Mechanisms
10.2.2.2 New Institutional Mechanisms
10.2.3 Approaches and Practices
10.2.3.1 Centralized Versus Decentralized Approach
10.2.3.2 Coordination and Cooperation Approaches
10.2.4 Vertical Coordination Between Cities and Upper Tiers of Government
10.2.4.1 Cooperation in Implementing Healthcare Measures
10.2.4.2 Cooperation in Economic Policies/Measures
10.2.4.3 Cooperation in Social Policies/Measures
10.2.5 Intergovernmental Horizontal Coordination
10.2.5.1 Coordination Between Government and Non-state Actors
10.2.5.2 Community Engagement by Governments
10.2.6 Innovations in Governance Mechanisms
10.2.6.1 Digital Innovations and Urban Governance
10.2.6.2 Use of Soft Tools: Adjustment in Governance Mechanisms
10.2.7 Governance Challenges and Constraints
10.2.8 Governance Lessons from the Pandemic
10.3 Climate Change and Urban Governance
10.3.1 Historical Perspective
10.3.2 Enablers and Barrier to Climate Action
10.3.3 Vulnerability and Capacity Variation
10.3.4 Modes of Urban Climate Governance
10.3.5 Institutional Mechanism for Urban Climate Governance
10.3.6 Multilevel Urban Climate Governance
10.3.6.1 Models of Vertical Coordination on Climate Change
10.3.6.2 Horizontal Coordination on Climate Change
10.3.7 Achievements of Climate Governance
10.3.8 Governance Challenges and Constraints
10.4 Conclusion
References
11: Vision of a Sustainable, Smart, and Resilient City
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Mega Risks and Urban Transformation Trends
11.3 Building Forward and Sustainable Development
11.3.1 Vision of a Sustainable Urban Economy
11.3.1.1 Sustainable Urban Economy and SDG Linkages
11.3.1.2 Monitoring and Tracking Economic Development
11.3.1.3 Sustainable Urban Development: Local Approaches
11.3.2 Vision of a Socially Resilient Inclusive City
11.3.2.1 Controlling Loss of Development Gains
11.3.2.2 Development Agenda on the Social Front
11.3.2.3 Social Sustainability and SDGs
11.3.3 Vision of an Environmentally Sustainable City
11.3.3.1 Environmental Sustainability and SDGs
11.3.3.2 Decoupling Resource Use from Development Process
11.3.3.3 Promoting Nature-Based Solutions
11.3.3.4 Climate Change and Green Recovery
11.3.3.5 Low-Carbon/GHG Economy and Climate Change
11.3.4 Vision of a Smart City
11.3.4.1 Smart City in Historical Perspective
11.3.4.2 Smart Technologies: Innovations and Applications
11.3.4.3 Mega Risks and Smart Technologies
11.3.4.4 Challenges and Issues
11.4 Vision of a Resilient City Design
11.4.1 Health Risks and City Design
11.4.1.1 Historical Perspective
11.4.1.2 Sanitary Movement
11.4.1.3 Garden City Movement
11.4.1.4 Towers in the Park
11.4.1.5 Architectural Modernism
11.4.1.6 Polycentric City
11.4.1.7 15-Minute City: An Emerging Concept
11.4.1.8 Diffusion of the Concept
11.4.2 Climate Change and Urban Design
11.4.3 Mega Risks: Public Spaces and Mobility Design
11.4.3.1 Public Spaces
11.4.3.2 Infrastructure and Transport
11.5 Conclusion
References
Index