Zimbabwean social media has been awash with images of a woman character, spirit, or concept called Chihera. Traditionally, a woman descending from the Mhofu (Eland) lineage/totem is known as Chihera. In the cumulative tradition of the Shona (a Zimbabwean ethnic group), Chihera is a fiercely independent, assertive, free spirited, and no nonsense woman.
This volume seeks to deepen reflections on the Chihera phenomenon in the context of the search for gender justice in Zimbabwe and Africa. The authors reflect on how this radical indigenous feminist ethic circulating on social media can animate the quest for Zimbabwean and African women’s full liberation from patriarchy and all oppressive forces. They grapple with the issue of generating culturally sensitive theories and approaches to galvanize the struggle for African women’s liberation in post-colonial settings. Second, they locate the Chihera mystique in the context of the practical struggle for women’s empowerment. Third, the volume illustrates how the Chihera phenomenon could be utilized for gender justice in Zimbabwe and beyond.
Author(s): Ezra Chitando, Sophia Chirongoma, Munyaradzi Nyakudya
Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 359
City: Cham
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Images
Chapter 1: Introducing a Radical African Indigenous Feminist Principle: Chihera in Zimbabwe
Introduction
Putting This Volume into Context
Chihera: A Radical Zimbabwean/African Indigenous Feminist Spirit and Practice
The Chihera Spirit: Transforming the Key Locales of Women’s Oppression
Women’s Bodily Autonomy
Freedom from Oppressive Cultural and Religious Ideologies
Women’s Political Participation and Leadership
Women’s Economic Empowerment
Patriarchy Pushes Back: Critiques of Chihera
Building on the Chihera Momentum: An Overview
Structure of the Book
Part I: Chihera in the Spiritual Hierarchy—Traversing Patriarchy
Part II: From the Mouths of Chiheras and Mhofuyokuno—Disrupting Patriarchy
Part III: Subverting Patriarchy—Chihera Persona in the Film Industry and Advocacy for Gender Parity
Part IV: Chihera Prototype Navigating the Zimbabwean Genderised Economic Sector
Part V: Confounding Chihera—Patriarchy Fights Back
References
Part I: Chihera in the Spiritual Hierarchy: Traversing Patriarchy
Chapter 2: Chihera in the Ancestral Realm: Exploring Female Ancestry Among the Hera People in Buhera, Zimbabwe
Introduction
Statement of Study
Background: Contextualization of Eland Female Ancestry (Chiheraism)
Essential Theoretical Matters and the Shona Cultural Context
Relevance of Symbolic Interactionism to Explore Chihera in the Ancestral Realm
Methodology
Assertiveness of Chihera dzimu (Ancestor)
Chihera and Aesthetic Values
Musha wavaChihera (Household of Chihera)
Children Revere Their Mothers More Than Their Fathers
Chihera and Traditional Leadership
Chihera zitete remhuri (Chihera’s Aunting Role)
Identity and Visibility of Chihera Ancestor in the Contemporary World
Significance of kuera (Sacredness) in Chihera: Final Reflections
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: VaChihera: A Profile of Ndakaziva
Introduction
The Coping Strategy
Chihera with Her Contemporaries
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Chihera: Renegotiating the Status of Women in Shona Indigenous Culture in Zimbabwe
Introduction
Theoretical Framework
The Status of Chihera Women in Shona Indigenous Culture: An Africana Womanist Perspective
Chihera as the Backbone of the Economy
Agriculture
Maoko (Hands) Wealth
Traditional Healing
Traditional Midwifery (Mbuya Nyamukuta)
Chihera and Leadership
Chief (Mambo)
Spirit Medium (Svikiro)
Chihera and Social Life
Marriage
Motherhood
Roles of Chihera as Mothers
Childbearing
Mothers as Nurturers
Mothers as Caregivers
Feeding the Family and Ethnic Group
Mothers as First Teachers
Chihera and Marriage Negotiations
Tete (aunt)
The Ambuya/Mbuyawasha (Mother-in-Law) and the Mombe Yeumai (Motherhood Cow)
The Bride
Chihera and Property Ownership
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Chiheras’ Twenty-First-Century Profiling: Re-converging from Past Divisions in Monolithic Defying of Traditional Patriarchal Culture
Introduction
Definitions
Identity Construction of the Hera People
The Paucity of Women Characters in Hera Narratives
Bobbing Presence of Women in Historical Narratives
The Eland Characterization and Association of Clan Traits Thereof
Emancipation of Chihera in Contemporary Narratives
Pulled-In or Pushed-Up Identity
Can All Women Be Chiheras?
Conclusion
References
Part II: From the mouths of Chiheras and Mhofuyokuno: Disrupting Patriarchy
Chapter 6: Ndini Chihera (I Am Chihera): An African Womanist Perspective on the Chihera Identity in Zimbabwe
Introduction
Chihera: The Categories
‘I Am Chihera’: Insider Narratives on the Socio-Cultural Construction of the Chihera Identity
Shava Nyakudirwa
Chihera and Social Media: Women Power as an Object of Ridicule
Chihera: The Epitome of Women’s Liberation from Patriarchy
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Ndini Baba vaChihera (I Am Chihera’s Father): A Narrative of the Chihera Persona
Introduction
Methodology
Chihera in Action
Kana vachitendwa (Praise eulogy for anaChihera)
When You Are Dating anaChihera
Conclusion
Chapter 8: “Please Understand Me, I Am Chihera”: Issues of Character and Traits Among the Indigenous Zimbabwean Women of the Chihera Totem
Introduction
Myers Briggs Personality Sorter Theory
Chihera Woman’s Path to Energy
Chihera Woman’s Path to Discovery
Chihera Woman’s Path to Decision Making
Chihera Woman’s Path to Behaviour
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Chihera’s Story: Keeping Ubuntu Alive Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic
Introduction
Threads of Resilience
The COVID-19 Pandemic
Ubuntu
Ubuntu as the Principle of Caring for the Health Care Needs of Others
Ubuntu as the Principle of Caring for Each Other’s Well-Being and Fostering the Spirit of Mutual Support
A Person with unhu/Ubuntu Will Take Care of Neglected Children
Respect for the Community as Part of the African Ubuntu Philosophy
A Person with Ubuntu/Unhu Welcomes Visitors
A Person with Ubuntu Protects the Environment
Patriarchy
Connectedness
Reflection
References
Chapter 10: Revisiting Totemic Praise Names: Chihera as Metaphor of Addressing Gender-Based and Sexual Violence in Post-colonial Zimbabwe
Introduction
Methodology
Music and Totems
Christian Denominations and Totems
Myths and Stereotypes: An Evaluation
Characteristics of Chihera: Dismantling the Pillars of Patriarchy
Calling Men to Partnership: Chihera’s Quest for Gender Justice
Chihera and Politics
Social Men’s Movements: A Quest to Destroy Women’s Empowerment
Re-Thinking Theology: Challenging Redundant Theologies of Oppression
Conclusion
References
Part III: Subverting Patriarchy: Chihera Persona in the Film Industry and Advocacy for Gender Parity
Chapter 11: Chihera in Film: The Subversion of Patriarchal and Customary Laws of Inheritance as Depicted in the Zimbabwean Feature Film Neria (1991)
Introduction: Theorizing “Chihera” in Zimbabwean Films
Neria as the Embodiment of Chihera: Confrontations with the African Customary Law of Inheritance
Chihera and Clashes Between Modern Law and Traditional Customary Law
Muffling Chihera’s Voice Through Modern Law in Neria (1991)
Chihera and Female Agency in Zimbabwean Films
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Genderising the Social Media: Analysing Chihera’s Antics in the Zimbabwean Context
Introduction and Background to the Study
Literature Review
The Eland (Mhofu)
Methodology
Population and Sampling
Findings and Discussion
Conversation One: Chihera as the New Daughter-in-Law
Discussion on Conversation One
Conversation Two: Chihera and Mother-in-Law
Discussion on Conversation Two
Conversation Three: Chihera’s Subtle Attack on Her Mother-in Law
Discussion on Conversation Three
Conversation Four: Chihera and Her Sister-in-Law
Discussion on Conversation Four
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Socially Constructed Discourse on Chihera: An Asset or Liability in Zimbabwe’s Envisioned Gender Equal Society
Introduction
Research Methodology
Theoretical Framework
Background to the Chihera Religio-Traditional and Cultural Discourse
Review of Related Literature
Discussion and Analysis of the Findings Based on the Scenarios That Portray Chihera’s Attributes on Social Media
Chihera Personality Brings Culture Shock to the Shona Society
Scenario One
Scenario Two
Scenario Three
Scenario Four
Chihera While She Is a Loving and Caring Wife, She Is Not a Prisoner in a Marriage Relationship
Chihera Is a Force to Reckon with and She Occupies Her Space
Scenario Five
Scenario Six
Chihera Is a Flexible Role Player Who Defies Cultural Restrictions
Scenario Seven
Scenario Eight
Scenario Nine
Chihera Quickly Moves Out of Denial, She Accepts Reality and Moves On
Scenario Ten
Learning Points and Recommendations for Further Studies
Concluding Analysis
References
Part IV: Chihera Prototype Navigating the Zimbabwean Genderised Economic Sector
Chapter 14: “If only it wasn’t for me” Chihera as Head of the Family in a Time of Economic Crisis
Introduction
Chihera in Context
Economic Opportunities and Challenges for Women in Zimbabwe
Chihera’s Responses to Economic Challenges
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Patriarchy and Disability: A Culture of Ubuntu, African Women with Disabilities and Sustainable Livelihoods in Matetsi Community, Zimbabwe
Introduction
Patriarchy and Disability
Livelihood Assets, Ubuntu and Women with Disabilities
Ubuntu and Disabilities
Households Headed by Women with Disabilities in Matetsi
A Half-Glass Full Approach: Reinterpreting Livelihoods by Rural Women with Disabilities
Profiling the Livelihood Assets that Women with Disabilities Have in Matetsi
Social Capital
Financial Capital
Human Capital
Physical Capital
Natural Capital
The Agency of Rural Women with Disabilities and a Culture of ubuntu
Conclusion
References
Part V: Confounding Chihera: Patriarchy Fights Back
Chapter 16: The Chihera Mystique in Selected Writings by African Women Theologians
Introduction
Conceptualization of Chihera
Representation of Chihera in Social Media
Talkative and Speaks Out
Unfeminine Actions
Chihera’s Attributes Exuded by African Women’s Theology
An Overview
Demand for Inclusion
Reading Scriptures to Empower Women
A Critique of African Culture
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Chihera as a Game Changer in the African Churches’ Masculine Leadership Hierarchy: A Case Study of the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe
Introduction
The History of the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe
The Zimbabwean Pentecostal Gender Ideology
Women in Africa Before Colonialism
The Colonial Period and Beyond
The Mother Amongst the Shona
Theoretical Framework
Findings and Discussion
What Is Expected of a “Chihera” in the Christian Home?
Having Talks and Bible Studies on Empowerment
Division of Household Chores
Exposing All Children to the Same Education
Fighting Against Patriarchy
Raising a Boy Child Who Is Not Challenged by a Powerful Woman
Involving Both the Girl Child and Boys in Decision Making
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Chihera’s Matriarchal Traits: A Mirror of Reverse Patriarchy
Introduction
The Synopsis of Domestic Violence in Zimbabwe
The Characterisation of Chihera Women
Chihera Women and the Reverse Patriarchy Motif
The Causes of Chihera’s Violence Against Men
Chihera and Forms of Abuses
Physical Abuse/Violence
Sexual Violence
Emotional and Psychological Violence
Financial Abuse
Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Implications of Consolidating Patriarchy Through Exploitation of “Better” Ways of Conveying Disagreeable Practices to Chihera, the Epitome of Empowered Women in Zimbabwe
Introduction
The Notion of Patriarchy
Motivation as a Concept
Skinner’s “Reinforcement Theory of Motivation”
Methodology
“Better” Ways of Conveying Disagreeable Practices Through Reinforcement Approaches
Conclusion and Recommendations
References
Index
