Chemistry and Technology of Alternate Fuels

Contents
Preface
About the Author
Part 1 The Need for Alternate Fuels
Chapter 1 Current Fuel Sources and Alternate Fuel Sources
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fossil Fuel Sources
1.2.1 Natural gas
1.2.2 Gas hydrates
1.2.3 The crude oil family
1.2.3.1 Opportunity crude oil
1.2.3.2 High acid crude oil
1.2.3.3 Foamy oil
1.2.3.4 Heavy crude oil
1.2.4 Unconventional fossil fuel resources
1.2.4.1 Extra heavy crude oil and tar sand bitumen
1.2.4.2 Coal
1.2.4.3 Oil shale
1.3 Non-Fossil Fuel Energy Sources
1.3.1 Biomass
1.3.2 Geothermal energy
1.3.3 Hydrogen energy
1.3.4 Nuclear energy
1.3.5 Solar energy
1.3.6 Tidal energy
1.3.7 Wind energy
1.4 Energy Supply
1.4.1 The peak oil theory
1.4.1.1 Reserve depletion
1.4.1.2 Effects and consequences
1.4.2 Economic factors
1.4.3 Geopolitical factors
1.4.4 Physical factors
1.4.5 Technological factors
1.5 Energy Independence and Energy Security
1.5.1 Energy independence
1.5.2 Energy security
References
Chapter 2 Conventional Fuels
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Gaseous Fuels
2.2.1 Composition
2.2.2 Manufacture
2.2.3 Properties and uses
2.3 Liquid Fuels
2.3.1 Naphtha
2.3.1.1 Manufacture
2.3.1.2 Composition
2.3.1.3 Properties and uses
2.3.2 Gasoline
2.3.2.1 Manufacture
2.3.2.2 Composition
2.3.2.3 Properties and uses
2.3.3 Kerosene
2.3.3.1 Manufacture
2.3.3.2 Composition
2.3.3.3 Properties and uses
2.3.4 Fuel oil
2.3.4.1 Manufacture
2.3.4.2 Composition
2.3.4.3 Properties and uses
2.4 Solid Fuels
2.4.1 Wax
2.4.1.1 Manufacture
2.4.1.2 Composition
2.4.1.3 Properties and uses
2.4.2 Resid
2.4.2.1 Manufacture
2.4.2.2 Composition
2.4.2.3 Properties and uses
2.4.3 Coke
2.4.3.1 Composition
2.4.3.2 Properties and uses
2.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3 Alternate Fuels
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Composition and Properties
3.3 Classification of Biofuels
3.3.1 First-generation biofuels
3.3.1.1 Sugars and starch
3.3.1.2 Cellulose
3.3.1.3 Lignin
3.3.2 Second-generation biofuels
3.3.3 Third-generation biofuels
3.4 Types of Biofuels
3.4.1 Gaseous fuels
3.4.1.1 Biogas
3.4.1.2 Low-Btu gas
3.4.1.3 Medium-Btu gas
3.4.1.4 High heat-content gas
3.4.1.5 Landfill gas
3.4.1.6 Synthesis gas
3.4.1.7 Hydrogen
3.4.2 Liquid fuels
3.4.2.1 Alcohols
3.4.2.1.1 Methanol
3.4.2.1.2 Ethanol
3.4.2.1.3 Propanol and butanol
3.4.2.2 Biodiesel
3.4.2.2.1 Feedstocks
3.4.2.2.2 Processes
3.4.2.2.2.1 Transesterification
3.4.2.2.2.2 Catalytic transesterification
3.4.2.2.2.3 Supercritical methanol transesterification
3.4.2.2.2.4 Effect of reaction parameters on yield
3.4.2.3 Hydrocarbons
3.4.2.4 Bio-oil
3.4.2.5 Bioethers
3.4.2.6 Liquid fuels from synthesis gas
3.4.3 Solid fuels
3.5 Property Variation with Source
3.5.1 General observations
3.5.2 Fuel specifications and performance
References
Part 2 Feedstocks
Chapter 4 Feedstocks for Fossil Fuels
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Natural Gas
4.2.1 History
4.2.2 Formation and occurrence
4.2.2.1 Associated gas
4.2.2.2 Non-associated gas
4.2.3 Unconventional gas
4.2.3.1 Coalbed methane
4.2.3.2 Gas hydrates
4.2.3.3 Shale gas
4.2.4 Composition and properties
4.2.4.1 Composition
4.2.4.2 Properties
4.2.4.2.1 Density
4.2.4.2.2 Heat of combustion
4.2.4.2.3 Volatility and flammability
4.3 The Crude Oil Family
4.3.1 Conventional crude oil
4.3.2 Opportunity crude oil
4.3.3 High acid crude oil
4.3.4 Foamy oil
4.3.5 Tight oil
4.3.6 Heavy crude oil
4.4 Extra Heavy Crude Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen
4.4.1 Extra heavy crude oil
4.4.2 Tar sand Bitumen
4.5 Coal
4.6 Oil Shale
References
Chapter 5 Feedstocks for Alternate Fuels
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Crops
5.2.1 Energy crops
5.2.1.1 Cordgrass and switchgrass
5.2.1.2 Jerusalem artichoke
5.2.1.3 Miscanthus
5.2.1.4 Reed plants
5.2.1.5 Residual herbaceous biomass
5.2.1.6 Short-rotation coppice
5.2.1.7 Sorghum
5.3 Wood
5.3.1 History
5.3.2 Composition and properties
5.3.2.1 Chemical composition
5.3.2.1.1 Cellulose
5.3.2.1.2 Hemicellulose
5.3.2.1.3 Lignin
5.3.2.1.4 Solvent extractives
5.3.3 Types of wood
5.3.3.1 Hardwood
5.3.3.2 Softwood
5.3.4 Uses
5.4 Waste
5.4.1 Domestic and industrial waste
5.4.2 Effects of waste
References
Chapter 6 Production of Alternate Fuels
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Production of Alternate Fuels
6.2.1 Anaerobic digestion
6.2.2 Biophotolysis
6.2.3 Combustion
6.2.3.1 Types of combustors
6.2.3.2 Combustion plants
6.2.4 Fermentation
6.2.5 Gasification
6.2.6 Pyrolysis
6.2.7 Other processes
6.2.7.1 Acid hydrolysis
6.2.7.2 Briquetting
6.2.7.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis
6.2.7.4 Transesterification
References
Chapter 7 Landfill Gas
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Landfill Classification
7.2.1 Bioreactor landfill sites
7.2.2 Construction and demolition debris landfill sites
7.2.3 Conventional municipal solid waste landfill sites
7.2.4 Hazardous waste landfill sites
7.2.5 Manual landfill sites
7.2.6 Sanitary landfill sites
7.2.7 Surface impoundment sites
7.3 Landfill Gas
7.4 Formation of Landfill Gas
7.4.1 Organic reactions
7.4.1.1 Hydrolysis and aerobic degradation
7.4.1.2 Hydrolysis and fermentation
7.4.1.3 Acetogenesis
7.4.1.4 Methanogenesis
7.4.1.5 Oxidation
7.4.2 Inorganic reactions
7.4.3 Landfill leachate
7.4.4 Landfill gas monitoring
7.4.5 Landfill mining
7.5 Gas Migration
7.5.1 Diffusion
7.5.2 Pressure
7.5.3 Permeability
7.5.4 Factors affecting gas migration
7.5.4.1 Landfill cover
7.5.4.2 Natural and anthropogenic pathways
7.5.4.3 Wind speed and direction
7.5.4.4 Moisture
7.5.4.5 Groundwater levels
7.5.4.6 Temperature
7.5.4.7 Barometric and soil gas pressure
7.6 Uses
7.6.1 Gas collection
7.6.2 Gas pretreatment
7.6.3 Environmental impact
7.6.3.1 Ash, slag, heavy metals, and dust
7.6.3.2 Flue gas
7.6.4 Gasification of landfill waste
References
Chapter 8 Synthesis Gas
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Coal Gasification
8.2.1 Chemistry
8.2.2 Processes
8.2.3 Gasifiers
8.3 Gasification of Crude Oil Fractions
8.3.1 Feedstocks
8.3.2 Chemistry
8.3.3 Commercial processes
8.3.3.1 Heavy residue gasification and combined cycle power generation
8.3.3.2 Hybrid gasification process
8.3.3.3 Hydrocarbon gasification
8.3.3.4 Hypro process
8.3.3.5 Pyrolysis processes
8.3.3.6 Shell gasification (partial oxidation) process
8.3.3.7 Steam–methane reforming
8.3.3.8 Steam–naphtha reforming
8.3.3.9 Synthesis gas generation
8.3.3.10 Texaco gasification process
8.4 Gasification of Other Feedstocks
8.5 Fuels and Petrochemicals
8.5.1 Gaseous fuels and chemicals
8.5.1.1 Ammonia
8.5.1.2 Hydrogen
8.5.1.3 Synthetic natural gas
8.5.2 Liquid fuels and chemicals
8.5.2.1 Fischer–Tropsch liquids
8.5.2.2 Methanol
8.5.2.3 Dimethyl ether
8.5.2.4 Methanol-to-gasoline and olefins
8.5.2.5 Other processes
8.6 The Future
References
Chapter 9 Gas Cleaning
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Gas Streams
9.3 Gas Cleaning
9.3.1 Effect of gas composition
9.3.2 Process types
9.4 Water Removal
9.4.1 Absorption
9.4.2 Adsorption
9.4.3 Cryogenics
9.4.4 Methanol-based processes
9.5 Acid Gas Removal
9.5.1 Adsorption
9.5.2 Absorption
9.5.3 Chemisorption
9.5.4 Other processes
9.6 Removal of Condensable Hydrocarbons
9.6.1 Extraction
9.6.2 Absorption
9.6.3 Fractionation
9.6.4 Enrichment
9.7 Tar Removal
9.7.1 Physical methods
9.7.2 Thermal methods
9.8 Other Methods of Gas Cleaning
9.8.1 Nitrogen removal
9.8.2 Ammonia removal
9.8.3 Particulate matter removal
9.8.4 Siloxane removal
9.8.5 Alkali metal salt removal
9.8.6 Biological methods
9.8.6.1 Biofiltration
9.8.6.2 Bio-scrubbing
9.8.6.3 Biooxidation
9.9 Tail Gas Cleaning
9.9.1 Claus process
9.9.2 SCOT process
References
Chapter 10 The Fischer–Tropsch Process
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Production of Synthesis Gas
10.2.1 Feedstocks
10.3 The Fischer–Tropsch Process
10.3.1 Chemistry
10.3.2 Process principles
10.3.3 Product distribution
10.4 Reactors and Catalysts
10.4.1 Reactors
10.4.2 Catalysts
10.5 Products and Product Quality
10.5.1 Products
10.5.2 Product quality
10.5.3 Refining Fischer–Tropsch products
References
Part 3 Properties of Alternate Fuels and the Future
Chapter 11 Properties of Alternate Fuels
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Gaseous Fuels
11.2.1 Natural gas
11.2.1.1 Composition
11.2.1.2 Properties
11.2.1.2.1 Density
11.2.1.2.2 Heat of combustion
11.2.1.2.3 Volatility, flammability, and explosive properties
11.2.1.2.4 Environmental properties
11.2.2 Synthetic gases
11.2.2.1 Producer gas
11.2.2.2 Blue water gas
11.2.2.3 Carbureted water gas
11.2.2.4 Coal and coke oven gas
11.2.2.5 Biogas
11.2.2.6 Wood gas
11.2.2.7 Refuse gas
11.3 Liquid Fuels
11.3.1 Methanol
11.3.2 Ethanol
11.3.3 Propanol and butanol
11.3.4 Bio-diesel
11.3.5 Hydrocarbon fuels
11.3.5.1 Naphtha and gasoline
11.3.5.2 Kerosene and diesel
11.3.5.3 Other fuels
11.4 Solid Fuels
11.4.1 Fuelwood
11.4.2 Logs and wood chips
11.4.3 Pellets and briquettes
11.4.3.1 Briquette manufacture
11.4.3.2 Bagasse briquettes
11.4.3.3 Sawdust briquettes
11.4.3.4 Urban waste briquettes
11.4.4 Charcoal
11.4.5 Coke
11.5 Fuel Quality
11.5.1 Bulk properties
11.5.2 Specifications
References
Chapter 12 Production of Fuels in a Biorefinery
12.1 Introduction
12.2 A Biorefinery
12.3 Feedstocks
12.3.1 Carbohydrates
12.3.2 Vegetable oils
12.3.3 Plant fibers
12.3.4 Waste
12.4 Process Options
12.4.1 Direct combustion
12.4.2 Fermentation and hydrolysis
12.4.3 Gasification
12.4.3.1 Gasification chemistry
12.4.3.2 Gasifiers
12.4.3.3 Synthesis gas
12.4.4 Pyrolysis
12.4.5 Anaerobic digestion
12.4.6 Transesterification
12.4.6.1 Feedstocks
12.4.6.2 Transesterification
12.4.6.3 Catalytic transesterification
12.4.6.4 Transesterification using supercritical methanol
12.4.6.5 Effect of process parameters
12.5 Alternate Fuels
12.5.1 Gaseous fuels
12.5.2 Liquid fuels
12.5.3 Solid fuels
12.6 Environmental Benefits and the Future
References
Conversion Factors
Glossary
Index